Neural Networks in Investments Essay example - 2681 Words

Neural Networks in Investments I. ABSTRACT Investment managers often find themselves overwhelmed with the large amount of data obtained from the financial markets. Most of the data available is numeric and noisy in nature, making the decision-making process harder. These decisions usually rely on the integration of statistical measures that attempt to compress much of the data and qualitative depictions such as graphs and bar charts with news events and other pertinent information. Investment decisions usually involve non-linear relationships among the various components of the data. Computers in general, are very adept at dealing with large amounts of numeric information. However, some algorithms are crucial in analyzing and†¦show more content†¦At the simplest level, neural networks are a new way of analyzing data. The revolutionary aspect of neural networks is their ability to learn and trace the complex patterns and trends in data. Neural networks are made up of neurons and behave like the human brain, and has th e ability to apply knowledge from past experience to new problems. Neural networks acquire this knowledge by training on a set of data. After the network has been trained and validated, the model may be applied to data it has not seen previously for prediction, classification, time series analysis or data segmentation. Unlike traditional statistical methods, neural networks do not require assumptions about the model form. A statistical analysis requires a certain form to be assumed such as linearity, which characterizes relationships between variables. Neural networks are more tolerant of imperfect data, such as the presence of missing values or other data quality problems. Neural networks perform better than traditional statistical methods when the model form is unknown or nonlinear, or when the problems are complex with highly inter-related relationships. In a dynamic environment, neural networks are flexible tools and have the capacity to learn rapidly and change quickly. As the data values and outcomes change, the model quickly learns and adapts itself. Rule based systemsShow MoreRelated Artificial Intelligence and Investing Essay1648 Words   |  7 Pagesmoney to an endeavour with the exception of obtaining profit. Investing activities require data identification, asset valuation (the process of determining the worth of something), and risk management (the process of managing the uncertainty in investment decision-making). Artificial intelligence techniques can be applied to financial investing, especially in the areas of credit risk assessment and stock valuation. In the future, we can expect that the techniques of artificial intelligence will beRead MoreChapter 11 Review Questions1 What Is1233 Words   |  5 Pagesknowledge is the expertise and experience of organizational members that has not been formally documented Describe the stages in the knowledge management value chain. A. Acquire: knowledge discovery, data mining, neural networks, genetic algorithms, knowledge workstations, expert knowledge networks B. Store: document management systems, knowledge databases, expert systems C. Disseminate: intranet portals, push e-mail reports, search engines, collaboration D. Apply: decision support systems, enterpriseRead MoreWhen Popularity Of Machine Learning Models Increased, A Number Of Automated Trading Systems1154 Words   |  5 Pagesnancial predictions. At rst, White (1988) applied articial neural networks (ANN) to reveal nonlinear regularities in the IBM stock price movements. Subsequently, Kamijo and Tanigawa (1990) used a recurrent neural network for the recognition of price patterns in the Japanese market. Cheng, Wagner, and Lin (1996) used an ANN to predict the weekly price direction of the 30-year U.S. treasury bonds and averaged an annualized return on investment of 17:3%. Later, A.-S. Chen, Leung, and Daouk (2003) predictedRead MoreCritical Analysis Of A Neural Network759 Words   |  4 Pageswe have encountered one major problem that is how to interpret a neural network given its black box characteristics. We really wanted to try ourselves, giving interpretation of our results so that we dug into the existing literature and found out a very interesting research paper written by Garson in 1991. In  « Illuminating the black box: a randomization approach for understanding variable contributions in artificial neural networks  », Olden and al. describes Garson’s algorithm very concisely so thatRead MoreExplanation Of A Neural Network735 Words   |  3 Pageswe have encountered one major problem that is how to interpret a neural network given its black box characteristics. We really wanted to try ourselves giving interpretation to our results so that we dug into the existing literature and found out a very interesting research paper wri tten by Garson in 1991. In  « Illuminating the black box: a randomization approach for understanding variable contributions in artificial neural networks  », Olden and al. describes Garson’s algorithm very concisely so thatRead MoreProject Evaluation And Selection Of Interconnected Projects933 Words   |  4 Pagesexpansion projects in transportation networks are almost always interdependent. When capacity of one link in a network changes it affects the flow of other links, and may shift bottle necks elsewhere throughout the network. In other words with respect to this expansion in one link, flow in other links may increase or decrease due to interdependency among them. So finding a sequence for a set of improvement projects needs consideration of their interrelations in the network. The selection and schedulingRead MoreCMGT556 Week 1 Individual Assigment Essay754 Words   |  4 PagesCognitive Science area of AI concentrates on how the human brain functions, and the way it thinks and learn. The research on how humans process information is then transformed into various computer-based applications, which includes Expert Systems, Neural Networks, Genetic Algorithms, Intelligent Agents, and Virtual Reality (Murugavel, 2014). Expert Systems Expert systems use a combination of knowledge-base and software components, which uses stored knowledge to form a conclusion, and then delivers theRead MoreEpilepsy Monitoring Case Analysis1395 Words   |  6 PagesMany epilepsy patients, especially in developing countries, can’t afford current seizure monitoring devices. One of the main priorities of the neural cap monitoring system is to offer an economically feasible device to epilepsy patients, in specific, epilepsy patients in developing countries. Subsequently, many Epilepsy Monitoring Units (EMU) are high cost, and rely in only one biomarker to detect when a seizure is occurring [2][3][4][5]. For example, the EMOTIV EPOC+, an EEG data sensor, offersRead MoreBusiness Intelligence Systems And Information Systems1176 Words   |  5 Pageswhere one can be used to determine another. Neural Networks Data mining process might also rely on sophisticated artificial intelligence or machine learning algorithms such as neural networks, that uses the data from training that helps in creating more accurate projections and precise estimations and predictions. Neural networks are structured just in the same pattern as of human brain. Human brain has millions of neurons, similarly neural networks are comprised of simulated neurons, they areRead MoreRobotic Assembly At Both Positive And Negative Sides1520 Words   |  7 Pagescatch the movement control strategy via biological organisms for the abstracting of neural algorithms aim. They present status of control of biological movement experience, but it is still too divided to make possible robot control building base on a biological basis which would be successful rival with conventional algorithms [3]. There are a number of promising approaches based on concepts of neural networks. First of those, they give a general overview about the issues which are solved and

America s Regional Division Is One Of A Kind - 1114 Words

A majority of countries around the world are divided regionally, whether that be states or provinces, and Canada s regional division is one of a kind. Regionalism in Canada is more prevalent than anywhere else, and each region has a substantial amount of force and sway within Canada. The strength of regionalism in Canada stems from its federal government system, Canada s geological make-up, and the prominence of the Quebecois. In the context of Canada, â€Å"region† will be considered as the provinces within Canada. Regionalism is defined as â€Å"The theory or practice of regional rather than central systems of administration or economic, cultural, or political affiliation† (Oxford Dictionary). In the case of Canada, the central government is†¦show more content†¦13 ). The nation-wide impact of Quebec does not hold true for all regions, as they vary greatly, as the provinces within Canada cover a very large area of land. Canada is the second largest country in the world by land mass, yet it is the thirty-eighth most populous country in the world. What that ratio means is a significant distance between the concentrated masses of people in Canada and the available resources from province to province vary largely due to the considerable amount of land the provinces occupy. In British Columbia, the geological make-up consists of long coastal region, rainforests, and large mountain ranges, whereas the province directly next to it is composed of flat fields and numerous pockets of oil. The economy of each province thus relies on its natural resources, and the vast difference between each province puts even more importance on the functioning of their respective provincial government. The plethora of economic sources for each province is a lot to focus on for one central federal government. A provincial government can pay attention more closely on their respective economic sources, thus giving a provincial g overnment more power and importance. The regional economies created spur on cultures and lifestyles associated with it. Each individual province of Canada has its own unique culture and encompass otherShow MoreRelatedDnata case study780 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Dnata - Marketing Contents Introduction In Middle East area, Dnata is one of the largest air travel services supplier. It also has its services internationally. It provides services mainly in three foundations: Travel services, Ground Handling and Cargo. For these three divisions Dnata has specific business systems which include online booking. Worldwide Dnata operates 20 airports in nine countries for ground Handling. DnataRead MoreOrganizational Structure Of An Organization1085 Words   |  5 PagesAn organizational structure is a composition that specifies a company s hierarchical structure. There are various kinds of conformations that organizations can choose to build their business around. The organizational structure exemplifies the way in which control and business affairs have been appointed within the organization. Organizational structure encompasses the design of an organization though people positioning and responsibilities in order for organizational goals can be reached. SomeRead MoreRunning Head: Effective and Efficient Control Systems of Wal-Mart1354 Words   |  6 Pagesfor Wal-Mart was 1962. At this time, Sam Walton s stores in Arkansas and Kansas were already facing competition from regional discount chains, such as K-Mart and Target. Sam traveled the country to study this radical, new retailing concept and was convinced it was the wave of the future. Today, Sam Walton has a global company with more than 1.8 million associates worldwide and nearly 6,500 stores and wholesale clubs across 14 countries. This kind of success could not have been achieved withoutRead MoreBrazil : The Largest Country Of South America952 Words   |  4 Pagesprobably already know, Brazil is the largest country of South America, and it s the fifth largest in the whole world. It actually almost covers half the continent of South America. In the wealthier parts of Brazil is a country of beautiful powdery white sand beaches, vibrant rainforests, and noisy wild metropolises. Brazil is an all year round destination, since their winter only lasts three months, June to August. Brazil’s climate kind of varys on the area, elevation, and proximity to the ocean.Read MoreThe Day After 911: Changes of the United States963 Words   |  4 Pages The Middle East is one of the birthplaces of human kind’s civilization. Since the Ancient Egypt, Sumer, the Arab Empire, Turkey Empire, or even to present day, the Middle East has always been a valuable strategic point for not only because of its geographic l ocation but also it full of petroleum and nature gas. According the OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) that 66% of the global oil reserves are in the Middle East and only 6% in North America, this makes a lot of powerfulRead MoreInternational Trade Is Important For Globalization1447 Words   |  6 PagesEven though all businesses have the ability to earn profit, but those able to compete in a global market may earn better profits than those only focus in one country. I think that is why so many students choose to study international business. Because it many people are earning a lot money from it. International business mainly deals with business, trade and commerce on a global market. Because laws and cultures different from country to country, businesses have to prepare to deal with whatever issuesRead MoreEssay on Causes and Effects of the American Revolution1557 Words   |  7 Pagesfor these acts stemmed from ongoing wars between England and France. Mos t notably, the French and Indian War took place in North America from 1756 to 1763. Britain won and effectively pushed France out of North America. This war sparked a division between the colonists and England for several reasons. After the war, England left 10,000 troops in North America. This is one of the republican warning signs. The country kept a standing army during peacetime. In order to pay for the war and the continuingRead MoreEssay on Slaughterhouse Blues: Book Review1587 Words   |  7 PagesMo . [Email address] Mo . [Email address] ANTH 3330 S. Metress ANTH 3330 S. Metress Slaughterhouse Blues: Book Review Michael Farhoud Slaughterhouse Blues: Book Review Michael Farhoud In Slaughterhouse Blues, anthropologist Donald Stull and social geographer Michael Broadway explore the advent, history, and implications of modern food production. The industrialized system behind what we eat is one of the most controversial points of political interest in our society today. Progressions in productiveRead MoreAnswer for Abb Case: Strategic Rise, Decline, and Renewal2238 Words   |  9 Pagesse) Yin Wang(S125066@student.hb.se) Silvia Abendaà ±o Delgado(S124778@student.hb.se ) Introduction In this paper, we research the five solutions to the case of ABB: strategic rise, decline, and renewal. We conduct our solutions by analysis of the kinds of CEOs’ strategies and structures from 1988 to 2008. We completed our solutions by identifying the ideas and factors, which cued key areas to go awry and affect the performance of the business; discussing the key strategic initiatives implementedRead MoreUsing Marble Tiles And Building1622 Words   |  7 Pagestechnique for advertising. There are stock for which much time and efforts are required in sending so as to make an enthusiasm businessman to forthcoming buyers than by simply advancing them. First and foremost of the exchange enroll in for cash America it was sold by uncommonly arranged specialist who drew nearer the imminent customers and had the troublesome undertaking of influencing them that they could no more proceed with the old methodologies, and that they critically obliged a cash register

Summer Creative Writing Programs You Are to Attend in 2018

Being a student is not really easy because there are many impediments and challenges that are faced only by this category of young people. The main objective is to develop all learning skills in all possible ways. There are no boundaries for the self-perfection. Accordingly, students should never stop. They ought to be on a constant move to improve their skills and enrich knowledge. One of the most effective ways to do that is to choose one of the numerous summer creative writing programs. There are a lot of organizations and educational institutions that suggest students attending special courses that can sustain and improve their writing capabilities. This is a tremendous advantage, which will help them prepare for the future challenges at colleges and universities. In addition, it is a great opportunity to have some rest. Consider the following programs: English Today. This program invites all eager students to Boston for 4- and 6-weeks of studying. The program involves students aged 17 years and older. It is targeted at the improvement of creative writing and will mainly focus on pronunciation, speaking, writing skills in general, the enrichment of vocabulary, and cross-cultural communication; Summer Institute for International Scholars. This is a specific course, which aims at the improvement and development of speaking and writing skills. The speaking aspect will involve work in teams, different types of verbal interactions, etc. When making allowances for the writing aspects, students will receive the ability to enhance the creative aspect. The instructors will work with the students individually, to improve various essential aspects. The program’s duration is six weeks; Summer Creative Arts Course in USA or Canada or UK. It was initiated for the students aged between 14-18 years. The program will include various aspects of writing and other necessities. The creative writing program will teach students how to compose different pieces of writing in the most effective and quickest ways. The course will be helpful for journalists. In addition, students may improve their knowledge in photography, world design, theatre, music, and visual arts; Critical Thinking Course in USA or Canada or UK. The initiators of the program invite students aged from 14 to 18 whose language knowledge is native or near-native. The campers will be taught how to avoid bad arguments and use proper ones when writing. They will also learn deductive and inductive methods, the use of the evidence, which will improve their creative writing. This was a brief survey of popular creative writing programs you can select for the summer period. Visit each website and evaluate the possibilities. It is quite possible that one of the described programs will meet your requirements and will help you improve creative writing skills. Yet, there are many other similar programs and institutions with professional staff and effective programs. Just do your own small research and compare them. Select the one that fits you most in order to reach your academic objectives.

Characteristics And Efficacy Of Adlerian Therapy Essay

Characteristics and Efficacy Adlerian therapy was founded by Alfred Adler, a physician turned psychotherapist. Adlerian therapy was originally called individual psychology (n.d. , Adler University). Adlerian therapy or individual psychology principles are based on the client being looked at â€Å"holistically, as a unified personality, or ‘individual’†, how a client’s â€Å"social environment† influenced â€Å"personality development†, how a client’s choices influence their lives rather than how their past effect their future, what types of â€Å"social interest† and â€Å"prosocial behavior† are influencing â€Å"psychological health†, â€Å"purposeful†, â€Å"goal oriented†, and â€Å"meaningful† behaviors, and understanding the client’s â€Å"subjective reality†. Adlerian therapy emphasizes the need for social interest or â€Å"community†. The social life consists of â€Å"communal life†, â⠂¬Å"work†, and â€Å"love relationships†. â€Å"Self-acceptance†, â€Å"spirituality†, and â€Å"parenting† were added later (Gehart, pg. 96, 2016). The interventions of Adlerian Therapy include â€Å"parenting style†, â€Å"family constellation and birth order†, â€Å"early recollections†, â€Å"basic mistakes†, â€Å"organ inferiority or physical weak points†, â€Å"dream analysis†, â€Å"the question†, â€Å"psychodynamic formulation†, â€Å"life tasks and social interest†, and â€Å"DSM Diagnosis† (Gehart, pg. 102-107, 2016). There are four phases of Adlerian therapy. The first phase is to â€Å"establish an egalitarian relationship†. The counselor may do this by â€Å"making a positive, warm connection† and emphasizingShow MoreRelatedAdlerian Psychotherapy: an Overview of Theory and Practice2639 Words   |  11 PagesAbstract Understand, interpret, direct. This statement is an oversimplification of sorts, but defines the essence of Adlerian psychotherapy. From this minimal overview of Adlerian theory, we can begin to elaborate and explore the intricacies of individual psychology. Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and strategies of the individual (private logic and mistaken notions) that we create in childhood, and which serve as a reference for attitudes, private viewsRead More Adlerian Psychotherapy Essay2528 Words   |  11 Pages Understand, interpret, direct. This statement is an oversimplification of sorts, but defines the essence of Adlerian psychotherapy. From this minimal overview of Adlerian theory, we can begin to elaborate and explore the intricacies of individual psychology. Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and strategies of the individual (private logic and mistaken notions) that we create in childhood, and w hich serve as a reference for attitudes, private views of selfRead MoreMy Own Theory Of Personality2164 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction Life can sometimes become unpredictable, when it comes to personality it can vary between individuals to the point some people may be viewed as abnormal. Personality can be defined as the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual s distinctive character. Each person personality can be a construct of more than one personality or can follow a specific theorist personality all the way through end of life. My own theory of personality is a collaboration with otherRead MoreThe Theory Of Counseling And Therapy Theories6153 Words   |  25 Pagescounseling theories influence your understanding of how to work with consumers with disabilities. The theories we learned provided a broad-based understanding of numerous factors related to the evolution of counseling and therapy theories and practices, along with new counseling and therapy skills. The important premise that underscores one of the central challenges of counseling and psychotherapy is that we are all in the same world, but each of us makes different sense of what we see and experience. ThatRead MorePsychodynamic Approach : Psychology, Psychology And Ego Psychology5661 Words   |  23 PagesThe Psychodynamic approach is the most traditional of all counseling theories. It encompasses four major schools of thought: Freudian (Psychoanalytic), Jungian Psychology, Adlerian Psychology and Ego Psychology. These schools share certain common assumptions about human behaviors, emotions and thoughts (BET). 1. 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This search produced the article that I feel I most relevant to my search requirements, this article is number 2 in appendix 5; the article by T Moules (2009), and is entitled They wouldn’t know how it feels . . .’: characteristics of quality care from young people’s perspectives: a participatory research project and it was published in the Journal of Child Health Care. This article researched the â€Å"need to hear from children themselves on the quality of healthcare they

Cell Phones Effect on Society Free Essays

string(77) " over a volume of 1 g of tissue, for most parts of the body \(see website\)\." RBMOnline – Vol 18. No 1. 2009 148-157 Reproductive BioMedicine Online; www. We will write a custom essay sample on Cell Phones Effect on Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now rbmonline. com/Article/3628 on web 3 November 2008 Review Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? Ashok Agarwal is a Professor in the Lerner College of Medicine at Case Western Reserve University and the Director of Center for Reproductive Medicine, and the Clinical Andrology Laboratory at The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States. He has published over 400 scientific articles, reviews and book chapters in different areas of andrology, male/ female infertility and fertility preservation. His research program is known internationally for its focus on disease-oriented cutting edge research in the field of human reproduction. His team has presented over 700 papers at national and international meetings and more than 150 scientists, clinicians and biologists have received their training in his laboratory. Dr Ashok Agarwal Kartikeya Makker1, Alex Varghese1, Nisarg R Desai1, Rand Mouradi2, Ashok Agarwal1,3 1 Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; 2Department of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 3 Correspondence: Tel: +1 216 444 9485; Fax: +1 216 445 6049; e-mail: agarwaa@ccf. org Abstract Over the past decade, the use of mobile phones has increased significantly. However, with every technological development comes some element of health concern, and cell phones are no exception. Recently, various studies have highlighted the negative effects of cell phone exposure on human health, and concerns about possible hazards related to cell phone exposure have been growing. This is a comprehensive, up-to-the-minute overview of the effects of cell phone exposure on human health. The types of cell phones and cell phone technologies currently used in the world are discussed in an attempt to improve the understanding of the technical aspects, including the effect of cell phone exposure on the cardiovascular system, sleep and cognitive function, as well as localized and general adverse effects, genotoxicity potential, neurohormonal secretion and tumour induction. The proposed echanisms by which cell phones adversely affect various aspects of human health, and male fertility in particular, are explained, and the emerging molecular techniques and approaches for elucidating the effects of mobile phone radiation on cellular physiology using high-throughput screening techniques, such as metabolomics and microarrays, are discussed. A novel study is described, which is looking at changes in semen parameters, oxidative stress markers and sperm DNA damage in semen samples exposed in vitro to cell phone radiation. Keywords: biophysics, cell phone, general health, infertility, radiofrequency electromagnetic waves, RF-EMW Introduction Cell phone usage has increased by leaps and bounds in the past decade and a half. From being a luxury limited to the wealthy, cell phones have become a commodity, virtually indispensable in daily lives. However, every technological advance and its overuse have a negative aspect. The increase in popularity of cell phones is accompanied by a growing concern regarding the harmful effects of cell phone radiation (radiofrequency electromagnetic waves; RF-EMW) exposure on human health. An earlier report of the Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones, established by the UK government, summarized the relevant studies on the biological effects of RF-EMW (Huber et al. , 2000). Since then, a flurry of scientific activities has attempted to define and quantify the adverse effects of RF-EMW. Despite the increasing number of reports concerning the effects of RF-EMW on various biological systems, no satisfactory mechanism has been proposed to explain the effects of this radiation (Feychting, 2005). Although cell phone companies constantly reassure their subscribers about the safety of their product, reports based on animal and human experiments showing adverse effects of cell phones on biological systems have surfaced. According to various reports, excessive cell phone usage has led to fatigue, headache, decreased concentration and local irritation and burning (Sandstrom et al. , 2001). The possible role of cell phone exposure on tumour induction also has been proposed in an epidemiological study (Hardell et al. , 2006). Recent studies also have highlighted the role of cell phone exposure on sperm motility, morphology and viability, thus proposing a reduction in male fertilizing potential (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Other reports suggest that RF-EMW may lead to DNA damage and chromosomal instability (Diem et al. , 2005). Even though the current research may have been inconclusive, it still has been successful in providing preliminary data and identifying trends on both sides of the argument that cell phone exposure may lead to harmful effects on human health. These 148  © 2009 Published by Reproductive Healthcare Ltd, Duck End Farm, Dry Drayton, Cambridge CB23 8DB, UK Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. studies have been handicapped by many drawbacks in design and methodology. In particular, comparing animal models with humans (Cairnie and Harding, 1981) is impractical. Differences in geometry, size and physiological responses between man and experimental animals imply that the results in animal studies should be interpreted with caution. Experimental approaches involving animal studies and in-vitro studies, along with high-throughput screening techniques like transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, can augment the validity of epidemiological studies addressing the effect of RF-EMW on reproductive tissues, cells and functions. Recent studies using these approaches have yielded interesting clues on the effect of RF-EMW at the cellular and molecular levels. This article highlights the adverse affects of RF-EMW on human biological systems by reviewing relevant studies and recent research to aid in deeper understanding of this important health issue. The novel study currently being carried out in the centre is briefly discussed. 1900 MHz), and they have the capacity to switch automatically among these four frequencies. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the energy flow per unit of mass (watts/kg; W/kg). It is a measurement of the power or heat absorbed by the tissue either in a local area of a human tissue or averaged over the whole body. In the USA, the SAR of cell phones varies from 0. 12–1. 6 W/kg. Standards are designed to limit the SAR in the body to safety levels. The Federal Communications Commission has set a SAR safety limit of 1. W/kg, averaged over a volume of 1 g of tissue, for most parts of the body (see website). You read "Cell Phones Effect on Society" in category "Papers" Exposure guidelines for RF protection had adopted the value of 4 W/kg averaged over the whole body (SARWB) ‘as the threshold for the induction of adverse thermal effects associated with an increase of the body core temperature of abou t 1 °C in animal experiments’ (Barnes and Greenebaum, 2007). Cell phone radiation output power is measured in units of watts or dBm (decibel referenced to 1 mW). Usually cell phones with higher frequency are assigned less output power. Cell phones commonly used these days operate at an output power of less than 1 W. Power density is a term for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field. It is defined as the power per unit area and is measured in units of mW/m2 or  µW/cm2 (Food and Drug Administration website). Maximum permissible exposures are based on SAR and power density measurements. The Federal Communications Commission has established safety standards on power density for cell phone base station antenna using 1900 MHz band for the general population an uncontrolled exposure of 1000  µW/cm2, and for the 850 MHz band the maximum exposure allowed is about 580  µW/cm2, as averaged over any 30-min period. Recent studies demonstrated that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effects (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). An overview of cell phone technology Telecommunications technology has advanced rapidly and explosively in recent years. The earliest, fully automatic cellular phone systems that were used were called Nordic mobile telephone, now classified as first-generation cellular phones. Introduced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, they were based on analogue technology. The second-generation cell phones that replaced the older analogue type are based on digital technology. These digital models have increased voice capacity, provided faster data transfer speeds, longer battery life, less power use and better signal quality than the firstgeneration cell phones. The cell phone technologies that are commonly used nowadays are the global system for mobile communication (GSM) and code division multiple access (CDMA). Both of these technologies are used by cell phone companies in the USA. The GSM technology uses narrow-band time division multiple access (TDMA), whereas CDMA incorporates the wider band that allows more users without interference and better security by providing every user with a unique code. The third-generation cell phones, which may be available for general use in the near future, consist of universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)/wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) and the high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) phones. The UMTS utilizes a GSM infrastructure with a W-CDMA air interface (the specification of the radio transmission between a mobile phone and the base station), which adds advantages to UMTS over GSM technology. The HSDPA is based on the W-CDMA technology with improved downlink speed that allows even higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Cell phones in the USA operate on the frequency bands of 850 MHz and 1900 MHz. In most other parts of the world, the frequency bands used are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. The newer phones offer a quad-band feature, which means that they can operate on the four common frequencies (850/900/1800 and RBMOnline ® Effect of RF-EMW on general health This section provides a discussion of the various aspects of human health that have been proposed to be, or actually are, affected by cell phone radiation (RF-EMW) (Figure 1). Effect on cardiovascular system (CVS) Braune et al. (1998) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported an increase in blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) on exposure to RF-EMW at 900 MHz for 35 min. Blood pressure increased by 5–10 mmHg, accompanied by a significant decrease in capillary perfusion due to vasoconstriction. They demonstrated, however, that autoregulatory blood pressure mechanisms were intact, as shown by a decrease in heart rate to nullify the increase in blood pressure. In a follow-up study done by the same group to corroborate their previous findings, a statistically significant increase in blood pressure was shown, but the analysis of variance showed that the changes were independent of EMW exposure (Braune et al. , 2002). Later, Tahvanainen et al. (2004) demonstrated cell phone exposure does not acutely change arterial blood pressure and heart rate. 149 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 1. Effect of electromagnetic radiation from cell phone usage on various human systems. OS = oxidative stress. In an animal study, Ozguner et al. (2005) reported increase in oxidative stress in rat myocardium on exposure to 900 MHz RF-EMW (30 min/day, for 10 days). kit or using a landline phone to reduce cell phone exposure (Oftedal et al. , 2000). The generation of reactive oxygen species by RF-EMW exposure is still to be proven convincingly, although many groups have provided evidence in animal-based studies. An increase in kidney tissue malonaldehyde and urine N-acetyl-? d-glucosaminidase and decrease in renal superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were reported by Oktem et al. (2005). Similar results were shown by another investigator (Irmak et al. , 2002), who provided evidence in favour of EMW-induced oxidative stress. They showed an increase in superoxide dismutase activity and a decrease in nitric oxide concentrations in sera. Conversely, no change was seen in the concentration of intracellular oxidants [oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG) accumulation, oxidation of thiol] and antioxidants (CuZn-superoxide dismutase, catalase) in cells exposed to radiofrequency radiation (CDMA and GSM, 835– 847 MHz for 20–22 h) (Hook et al. , 2004). Effect on sleep Despite concerns that sleep patterns are disturbed due to excessive cell phone usage, Huber et al. (2000) did not report any significant change in sleep quality, sleep latency and rapid-eye-movement sleep latency in healthy young men exposed to 900 MHz for 30 min. The only effect reported was an increase in electroencephalogram power density during the first 30 min of non-rapid-eye-movement sleep, especially ? waves and sleep spindles (the type of sleep waves seen with an electroencephalogram). They concluded that the effect of RF-EMW exposure was transitory, limited to the initial phase of sleep and outlasting the RF-EMW exposure. Recently, Perentos et al. (2007) found no significant change in resting electroencephalogram on human volunteers exposed to RF-EMW. Cell phones and neurohormonal secretion Various epidemiological studies have highlighted effects of cell phone usage on neurohormonal secretion. Conflicting results have been reported by different groups regarding the effect of cell phones on melatonin secretion. De Seze et al. (1999) reported no change in maximum serum concentration (P = 0. 63), the time of peak concentration (P = 0. 49) and area under curve (P = 0. 56) of the hormonal profile. On the other hand, Burch et al. (2002) concluded that subjects with cell phone usage 25 min/day had lower creatinine-adjusted mean nocturnal concentrations of a melatonin metabolite, 6-hydroxymelatonin sulphate (6-OHMS), (P = 0. 5) and lower overnight 6-OHMS excretion (P = 0. 03). They concluded that prolonged usage of cell phones may lead to reduced melatonin production. Djeridane et al. (2008) demonstrated 900 MHz RFEMW would not significantly affect endocrine functions in men. RBMOnline ® Local and general adverse effects Sandstrom et al. (2001), in a questionnaire-based study involving some 17,000 respondents, showed that cell phone usage led to complaints such as warmth on and behind the ear (31%), fatigue (28%), headache (21. 4%), decreased concentration (15%), dizziness (10%), memory loss (9%), and tingling and numbness (6. 7%). They also concluded that a statistically significant positive trend was shown by warmth and neurasthenic symptoms (headache, fatigue) with calling time and number of calls per day. They proposed that these changes were due to either radiofrequency exposure or thermal effects of EMW. Of all the people who attributed these symptoms to cell phone usage, 45% of them took steps such as reducing calling time, changing cell phone model, using a hands-free 150 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Effects on cognitive function Preece et al. (1999) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported that the nly cognitive function test that altered post-RF-EMW exposure is choice reaction time, leading to an increase in responsiveness. They reported no change in word, number or picture recall or any change in spatial memory. They proposed that the increase in responsiveness was due to a mild local thermal effect of EMW on angular gyrus (the interface be tween visual and speech centres) or to mechanisms mediated by heat shock proteins. They also concluded that memory is not commonly affected by cell phone exposure as the memory area of the brain (hippocampus) is deep seated in the medial temporal lobe of the brain. Later, Regel et al. (2007) demonstrated RFEMW exposure reduces reaction speed and increased accuracy in working-memory tasks. As discussed previously, recent studies reported that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effect (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). However, several views were proposed to elucidate the disruption of metabolic pathways by RF-EMW. Some of these views are based on experimental evidences and some on hypothetical models. Isocitrate dehydrogenase, an important enzyme in the citric acid cycle, is one of the targets of cell phone radiation. Alteration in the enzyme activity leads to decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in mammalian cells (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Since sperm motility depends on the active generation of ATP, such a mechanism might cause the decline in sperm motility during RF exposure. Spermatozoa lose their cytoplasm post-spermiation, leading to the loss of their antioxidant protective mechanism and rendering them inherently vulnerable to induction of DNA damage. They are differentiated to the point that they cannot undergo apoptosis in response to any form of severe genetic damage (Aitken, 1999). In addition, during the process of maturation, spermatozoa are separated from the Sertoli cells, their nursing cells. Several investigators have demonstrated an increase in DNA fragmentation in a variety of human and animal cells following cell phone exposure (Lai and Singh, 1996; Diem et al. , 2005; Panagopoulos et al. , 2007). Lai and Singh showed that exposing rats (n = 16) for 2 h to pulsed 2- µs pulse width, 500 pulses/s and continuous wave (2450 MHz) leads to an increase in breaks of single-stranded DNA (P 0. 01) and double-stranded DNA (P 0. 01) in rat brain cells. They proposed that this could be due to either direct EMWmediated effects or a defect in DNA repair mechanisms. In contrast, several studies found no effect of EMW on genotoxicity. Stronati et al. (2006) demonstrated no effects of RF exposure on DNA strand breakage (assessed by COMET assay), unstable chromosomal alterations (assessed by metaphase analysis) or alterations in the speed of in-vitro cell cycling (assessed by nuclear division index) in lymphocytes in their experiment involving exposure of human blood samples to RF (24 h, 935 MHz). A large-scale in-vitro study conducted by Sakuma et al. 2006) concluded that RF-EMW from mobile phone radio base stations do not act as a genotoxicant (at SAR up to 800 mW/kg). The induction of DNA damage in spermatozoa has been associated with male infertility, early pregnancy loss and morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer (Aitken, 1999). Aitken et al. (2005) demonstrated that exposure of mice to RF-EMW, 900 MHz, 12 h/day for 7 days led to damage to both the mitochondrial and nuclear genome of epididymal spermatozoa (P 0. 01). However, currently no human studies are available demonstrating DNA damage in sperm cells by RF radiation exposure. Several animal studies have attempted to highlight histological changes in testicular tissue on exposure to RF-EMW. Dasdag et al. (1999) demonstrated a decrease in mean seminiferous tubule diameter in rats (n = 18) by exposing them to an 890–915 MHz cell phone, 2 h/day for 30 days (P 0. 05). However, a similar study carried out later by the same group did not reveal any statistically significant result of cell phone exposure on seminiferous tubular diameter, lipid composition, malonaldehyde Tumorigenesis Carcinogenic potential of cell phone radiation is one of the most conflicting aspect in various studies conducted by several groups. Following public concern that cell phone exposure may lead to cancer, Hardell et al. (2006) conducted an epidemiological questionnaire-based study and concluded that astrocytoma (grade III–IV) and acoustic neuroma did show a positive correlation with cell phone usage, and the odds ratio increased with latency (10 years). However, no increased risk was shown with astrocytoma (grade I–II), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, salivary tumours or testicular tumours. With regard to testicular tumours, they concluded that the risk of seminoma and non-seminoma was not increased, a dose–response effect was not observed, and he location of the cell phone was not associated with testicular cancers (Hardell et al. , 2007). Other scientists have concluded that the current evidence for a causal association between cancer and EMW exposure is weak and unconvincing (Colonna, 2005). Cell phone and effects on male fertility Pathophysiology Despite reports from numerous groups suggesting a possi ble role of cell phone exposure in male infertility, the exact mechanism of the effects of EMW on male reproductive system is yet to be elucidated. Though various effects have been proposed, foolproof experimental evidences are lacking to substantiate it. Human testes need physiological temperatures 2 °C lower than body temperature for optimal spermatogenesis. Highintensity RF has heating properties that lead to thermal effects on the testes. An increase in testicular or body temperature on exposure to EMW may cause reversible disruption of spermatogenesis (Kandeel and Swerdloff, 1988; Jung and Schill, 2000). EMW can also affect reproductive function via an EMW-specific effect (a ‘microwave’ effect produced by an increase in tissue temperature less than its normal temperature fluctuation) or in combination with the thermal molecular effect (Blackwell, 1979). 51 RBMOnline ® Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. concentration, sperm count or sperm morphology (Dasdag et al. , 2003). Ribeiro et al. (2007) also did not find any significant adverse effect of cellular phone exposure (GSM 1835–1850 MHz exposure, 1 h/day for 11 weeks) on rat testicular histology and function. However results of in-vitro studies are conflicting. An in-vitro study divided neat semen samples from healthy volunteers (n = 27) into two parts and one part was exposed to 900 MHz EMW for 5 min. Compared with the unexposed sample, the exposed sample was found to have a significant decrease in rapid progressive motility (Grade A, P = 0. 0007), an increase in slow progressive motility (Grade B, P = 0. 0007) and an increase in the percentage of immotile spermatozoa (Grade D, P = 0. 0003) (Erogul et al. , 2006). Recently, Falzone et al. (2008) studied the effect of pulsed 900 MHz radiation on various kinetic parameters and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)of purified human spermatozoa (by percoll density gradient). They found significant decrease in straight-line velocity and beatcross frequency at an SAR of 5. W/kg. However, at an SAR of 2. 0 W/kg they found no significant change in any kinetic parameters, including MMP. Significant changes in sperm morphology were not reported in the animal studies carried out by Dasdag et al. (1999, 2003). Similarly no significant (P 0. 05) alteration in morphology was reported by another group based on their animal experiment (Yan et a l. , 2007). However, the same group reported that 80% of the slides in the exposed group showed large clumps of sperm cells that were able only to turn about in their position and were not able to break free. On the other hand, significant data were brought out in a study in which 15. 3% of men using cell phones sporadically for 1–2 years had only 10–19% normal spermatozoa, and 15. 3% had total azoospermia, whereas men frequently using cell phones for 2 years had only 8. 3% normal spermatozoa, and 22. 9% showed total azoospermia (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). EMW and semen parameters The effects of cell phone exposure on male fertility have been studied exhaustively in recent years (Deepinder et al. , 2007). The effects on sperm concentration, motility and morphology have been evaluated in many animal and human studies, but results are inconclusive. Motility is the only parameter that the majority of studies have shown to be significantly affected. The need to further evaluate the effects of EMW on sperm morphology, viability and concentration still exists. Dasdag et al. (1999) reported a decrease in sperm count; however, the decline was not statistically significant (P 0. 05), and they were not able to repeat the same results later in a similar study (Dasdag et al. 2003). Another group reported that exposure of rats (n = 16) to a 1. 9 Hz cell phone from a distance of 1 cm for 6 h/ day for 18 weeks did not lead to significant decline in sperm concentration. The exposure group had a mean sperm count of 7. 45 ? 107  ± 1. 03 ? 107 sperm cells/ml, and the non-exposed group had a mean sperm count of 7. 7 ? 107  ± 8. 11 ? 106 sperm cells/ml (P 0. 05) (Yan et al. , 2007). In an epidemiolo gical study, researchers concluded that no statistically significant (P 0. 05, chi-squared test = 1. 8) difference in sperm count resulted from cell phone exposure (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). In a study carried out by this centre, a significant decline in sperm count was demonstrated in men who used cell phones for 4 h/ day (n = 114, count 50. 30  ± 41. 92 ? 106/ml) as compared with those who did not use cell phones at all (n = 40, count 85. 89  ± 35. 56 ? 106/ml) (P 0. 0001) (Agarwal et al. , 2008). As mentioned earlier, motility is the only parameter that consistently has been shown to decline in studies carried out by various groups. In a study involving 371 men presenting for an infertility workup, duration of possession and daily transmission time of cell phones correlated negatively with the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (r = –0. 12 and r = –0. 19, P 0. 01) and positively with the proportion of slow progressive motile spermatozoa (r = 0. 12 and r = 0. 28, P 0. 01) (Fejes et al. , 2005). The same group also concluded that low transmitter (60 min/ day) groups also differed in the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (48. 7% versus 40. 6%, P 0. 01). Wdowiak et al. (2007) reported that 65. 7% of men not using cell phones had 50% (WHO category A + B) sperm motility, whereas only 35. 4% of men who frequently used cell phones had 50% (A + B) sperm motility. Agarwal et al. (2008) had shown a significant reduction in motility of spermatozoa in men using cell phones 4 h/day versus men not using them at all (67. 80  ± 6. 16% versus 44. 81  ± 16. 30%, P 0. 0001). In an animal-based study, a significant decrease in sperm motility on exposure to cell phone (n = 16, P 0. 05) was reported (Yan et al. , 2007). The researchers also reported that the majority of sperm cells in the exposure group were dead (live cells 44. 88  ± 20. 66%); in the control group, the majority of sperm cells were alive with constant, active motility (live cells 70. 93  ± 12. 94%). Transcriptomics and proteomics in elucidation of biological response of cell phone radiation Research over the last two decades on the effect of RFEMW has yielded controversial results. It is said that even an extensive epidemiological study might not be sufficient to elucidate the health effects of electromagnetic radiations because of the low sensitivity of this approach. Hence, to validate the results from epidemiological studies, further data from animal and in-vitro studies needs to be analysed. Several lines of evidences suggest that the novel methodologies such as transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics could help in the search for clues to the negative impact of cell phone radiation on human health. High-throughput screening techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be used to pick up minute variations, like those caused by RF-EMW affecting protein or gene expression, that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration (Figure 2). Heat shock proteins (Hsp), which are molecular chaperones, comprise a group of highly conserved, abundantly expressed proteins with diverse functions, including the assembly and sequestering of multiprotein complexes, transportation of nascent polypeptide chains across cellular membranes, and regulation of protein folding. Protein phosphorylation is a first line of cellular response to any stimuli by either RBMOnline ® 152 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 2. A proposed model to study the effect of cell phone radiation using the high-throughput technologies. These techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be helpful to find minute variations caused by RF-EMF in protein or gene expression changes that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration. MALDI-TOF = matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight; SAGE = serial analysis of gene expression. internal or external factors. By using western blots or mass spectrometry, the phosphoproteins could be located after cellular irradiation from a mobile phone to check for any alterations in cell response. By using this approach, Hsp27 was determined to be a molecular target event of RF-EMW (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). A study using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry found statistically significant altered expression levels of 38 various proteins in human endothelial cell lines following GSM 900 MHz irradiation (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Two of the affected proteins were determined to be isoforms of cytoskeletal vimentin and might have an effect on the physiological functions that are regulated by the cytoskeleton. Results from a study using human lens epithelial cells (HLEC) cell lines indicate that exposure to non-thermal dosages of RF for wireless communications can induce no or repairable DNA damage and the augmented Hsp70 protein expression in HLEC occurred without change in the cell proliferation rate (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). The induction of Hsp70 by extremely low frequency (ELF) EMW also involves elements of the mitogen-activated phosphokinase (MAPK) family of cell response cascades, which are recognized signal transduction systems present in eukaryotes. MAPK pathways consist of distinct cascades of regulator enzymes that serially activate one another to control the expression of specific sets of genes in response to growth factors, cytokines, tumour promoters and other major biological stimuli. The authors suggest that nonthermal stress response of Hsp70 protein increased on RF exposure might be involved in protecting HLEC from DNA damage and maintaining the cellular capacity for proliferation (Lixia et al. , 2006). RBMOnline ® The phosphorylated Hsp27 (activated) has been shown to inhibit apoptosis by forming a complex with the apoptosome (complex of Apaf 1 protein, procaspase 9, and cytochrome c) or some of its components and preventing proteolytic activation of the procaspase 9 into active form of caspase 9 (Concannon et al. , 2001). This, in turn, prevents activation of procaspase-3, which is activated by caspase 9. Apaf-1 plays an important role in the induction of apoptosis (Zou et al. , 1997). Cytochrome c release from mitochondria occurs when there is a DNAdamaging stimuli-induced apoptosis. Together with dATP/ATP, cytochrome c initiates formation of an apoptosome consisting of Apaf 1 oligomers. The Apaf 1 apoptosome recruits and activates caspase 9, which in turn activates the executioner caspases, caspase 3 and caspase 7 (Zou et al. , 1997). The induction of the increased Hsp27 activation by the RF-EMW exposure might lead to inhibition of the apoptotic pathway that involves apoptosome and caspase 3. It is proposed that such events occurring in RF-EMW-exposed cells that had undergone either spontaneous or external factor-induced transformation or damage could support survival of the transformed/damaged cells (Leszczynski et al. 2004). The exposure of the EA. hy926 human endothelial cell line to 900 MHz RF-EMW induces activation of the p38 MAPK stress response pathway and leads to an increase in expression and phosphorylation of the small stress response protein Hsp27 (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). Other studies have shown that the phosphorylated form of Hsp 27 has the abi lity to translocate to the nucleus and to induce changes in gene expression (Geum et al. , 2002). The evidence suggests that different types of cells from different species might respond differently to mobile phone radiation 53 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. or might have different sensitivity to this weak stimulus. The results from the studies by (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006) show that gene and protein expression were altered in multiple cell lines in response to 1-h mobile phone radiation exposure at an average specific absorption rate of 2. 8 W/kg. However, the same genes and proteins were affected differently by the exposure in each of the cell lines. This suggests that the cell response to mobile phone radiation might be genome- and proteome-dependent. The magnitude of the genetic background for some stimulus-specific responses was highlighted by some studies comparing different cell lines (Czyz et al. , 2004). It is postulated that the genetic constitution, as well as carrier frequency of the modulation schemes and exposure duration, may play a substantial role in responsiveness of cells to RFEMW. These findings might also explain, at least in part, the origin of discrepancies in reproducibility of studies among different laboratories (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006). Some evidence has suggested that RF-EMW may change expression of DNA transcription factors and cause changes in cell cycle kinetics. Litovitz et al. (1993) have shown that exposure of mouse L929 fibroblasts to 915 MHz at an SAR of 2. 5 W/kg induced the expression of ornithine decarboxylase protein, an enzyme important in cell cycle regulation. Natarajan et al. (2002) reported that exposure of a monocytic cell line to 8. 2 GHz pulse-modulated RF-EMW increased the binding of the nuclear factor kappa light chain gene to its consensus DNA sequence. Later on, relative expression and localization of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) and their receptors (BMPR), major endocrine and autocrine morphogens involved in renal development, were investigated by Pyrpasopoulou et al. (2004) in newborn kidneys from RF-EMW-exposed pregnant rats. The kidneys of newborns from the RF-exposed rats showed up-regulation of BMP4 and BMPR1A and down-regulation of BMPR2. This study suggests that RF-EMW might interfere with gene expression during early gestation and result in aberrations of BMP expression in the newborn (Pyrpasopoulou et al. 2004). RF-EMW has also been reported to affect the expression of Jun, a proto-oncogene (Ivaschuk et al. , 1997). Using serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), Lee et al. (2005) reported that in-vitro exposure of HL-60 cells to pulsemodulated 2. 45 GHz RF fields at an SAR of 10 W/kg for 6 h resulted in the differential expression of more than 750 genes. In contrast, many other recent studies have failed to find ev idence of RF-field-induced changes in Hsp expression after RF-EMW exposure at frequencies ranging from 900–1950 MHz and SAR from 2–10 W/kg (Capri et al. 2004a,b; Laszlo et al. , 2005). Qutob et al. (2006) also reported no evidence relating nonthermal RF field on gene expression using microarray analysis in cultured U87 MG cells. Studies done on Drosophila melanogaster developmental potential by exposure to non-thermal radiation from the GSM mobile phone found increased numbers of offspring and elevated Hsp70 levels (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). This study also reported increased serum response element DNA-binding and induction of the phosphorylation of the nuclear transcription factor ELK-1 by cell phone radiation. The rapid induction of Hsp70 within minutes by a non-thermal stress, together with identified components of signal transduction pathways, could provide sensitive and reliable biomarkers that could serve as the basis for practical mobile phone safety guidelines (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). The indications to date that certain genes are influenced by EMW suggests that genome-wide scans of the transcriptome are necessary. Among the several technologies used for genomewide gene expression analysis, SAGE is one promising method that seems particularly applicable for EMW research. SAGE has been used in many biological and medical studies involving various eukaryotic species. So far, more than 19 million copies of SAGE tags have been collected from humans (Wang, 2006). In a recent study by Remondini et al. (2006), which was part of the Fifth Framework Programme project REFLEX (Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards From LowEnergy Electromagnetic Field Exposure Using Sensitive InVitro Methods), six human cell types, immortalized cell lines and primary cells were exposed to 900 and 1800 MHz. RNA was isolated from exposed and sham-exposed cells and labelled for transcriptome analysis on whole-genome cDNA arrays. NB69 neuroblastoma cells, T lymphocytes, and CHME5 microglial cells did not show significant changes in gene expression. In EA. hy926 endothelial cells, U937 lymphoblastoma cells and HL-60 leukaemia cells, between 12 and 34 genes were up- or down-regulated (including bcl-2-associated transcription factor BTF gene). The findings conclude that analysis of the affected gene families does not point towards a stress response, and no consistent RF-EMF signatures could be detected. However, following RF-EMW exposure, some but not all human cells might react with an increase in expression of genes encoding ribosomal proteins and therefore up-regulating the cellular metabolism (Remondini et al. , 2006). Theoretical approaches also have been proposed to elucidate the mechanism behind the stimulation of biosynthesis by EMW (Blank and Goodman, 2008). Electrons have been shown to move in DNA and biochemical reactions could be modulated by EMW (Blank, 2005). Interaction with electrons could explain the activation of DNA by weak, low-frequency EMW, as well as the more energetic high frequencies. Evidence from biochemical reactions suggests that electromagnetic fields can accelerate electron transfer. Interaction with electrons could displace electrons in H bonds that hold DNA together, leading to chain separation and initiating transcription. The electron transfer would favour separation of base pairs, and DNA geometry is optimized for disaggregation under such conditions. The initial interaction could involve the displacement of electrons in the H bonds that hold DNA together, thereby causing chain separation and initiating transcription and translation. EMWinitiated DNA separation can set in motion the interconnected biochemical signalling pathways that are activated in the stress response (Blank and Goodman, 2008). The effects of lowfrequency EMW on Na/K-ATPase activity (Blank, 2005) to generate ATP is another pertinent field to explore in the context of spermatozoal motility. The Na/K-ATPase is an enzyme of the plasma membrane of most animal cells that uses the free energy from the hydrolysis of ATP to mediate the exchange of cytoplasmic Na+ for extracellular K+ in a 3:2 ratio (Kaplan, 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006). The Na/K-ATPase plays a key role in numerous cell processes that depend directly or indirectly on the transmembrane gradients of Na+ and K+. The enzyme is essential in maintaining cell osmotic balance, volume, pH and the cell resting membrane potential and in providing the chemical energy for the secondary Na+-coupled transport of other ions, solutes and water across the cell membrane (Skou and Esmann, 1992). This enzyme has an important role, along RBMOnline ® 154 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. with Na+/H+ exchanger, in human sperm motility (Woo et al. 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006) These cellular pathways should be further analysed in the context of EMW. More recently Friedman et al. (2007) found significant increase in plasma membrane NADH oxidase activity of mammalian cells (HeLa cells) after exposure to 875 MHz EMF. Although the use of the discovery science approach employing high-throughput screening techniques will not yield foolproof evidence of a health hazard or its absence, it will be essential in unravelling the complexities of the biological effects potentially exerted by RF-EMF exposure. upport of previous studies, they also will open opportunities for groundbreaking research in this area. References Agarwal A, Deepinder F, Sharma RK et al. 2008 Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertility and Sterility 89, 124–128. Agarwal A, Desai NR, Makker K et al. 2008 Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility Epub ahead of print. Aitken RJ 1999 The Amoroso Lecture. The human spermatozoon – a cell in crisis? Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 115, 1–7. Aitken RJ, L. E. Bennetts, Sawyer D et al. 2005 Impact of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation on DNA integrity in the male germline. International Journal of Andrology 28, 171–179. Anderson V, Rowley J 2007 Measurements of skin surface temperature during mobile phone use. Bioelectromagnetics 28, 159–162. Barnes FS, Greenebaum B 2007 Bioengineering and biophysical aspects of electromagnetic fields. In: Barnes FS, Greenebaum B (eds) Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA. Blackwell RP 1979 Standards for microwave radiation. Nature 282, 360. Blank M 2005 Do electromagnetic fields interact with electrons in the Na,K-ATPase? Bioelectromagnetics 26, 677–683. Blank M, Goodman R 2008 A mechanism for stimulation of biosynthesis by electromagnetic fields: charge transfer in DNA and base pair separation. Journal of Cellular Physiology 214, 20–26. Braune S, Riedel A, Schulte-Monting J et al. 2002 Influence of a radiofrequency electromagnetic field on cardiovascular and hormonal parameters of the autonomic nervous system in healthy individuals. Radiation Research 158, 352–356. Braune S, Wrocklage C, Raczek J et al. 1998 Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field. Lancet 351, 1857–1858. Burch JB, Reif S, Noonan CW et al. 2002 Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users. International Journal of Radiation Biology 78, 1029–1036. Cairnie AB, Harding RK 1981 Cytological studies in mouse testis irradiated with 2. 45-GHz continuous-wave microwaves. Radiation Research 87, 100–108. Capri M, Scarcella E, Bianchi E et al. 004a 1800 MHz radiofrequency (mobile phones, different global system for mobile communication modulations) does not affect apoptosis and heat shock protein 70 level in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from young and old donors. International Journal Radiation Biology 80, 389–397. Capri M, Scarcella E, Fumelli C et al. 2004b In-vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to 900 MHz CW and GSM modulated radiofrequency: studie s of proliferation, apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Radiation Research 162, 211–218. Colonna A 2005 Cellular phones and cancer: current status. Bull Cancer 92, 637–643. Concannon CG, Orrenius S, Samali A 2001 Hsp27 inhibits cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation by sequestering both pro-caspase-3 and cytochrome c. Gene Expression 9, 195–201. Czyz J, Guan K, Zeng Q et al. 2004 High frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM signals) affect gene expression levels in tumor suppressor p53-deficient embryonic stem cells. Bioelectromagnetics 25, 296–307. Dasdag S, Zulkuf Akdag M, Aksen F et al. 2003 Whole body exposure of rats to microwaves emitted from a cell phone does not affect the testes. Bioelectromagnetics 24, 182–188. Dasdag S, Ketani MA, Akdag Z et al. 999 Whole-body microwave exposure emitted by cellular phones and testicular function of rats. Urological Research 27, 219–223. Cleveland Clinic pilot study To validate the results of recent epidemiological studies and to establish a cause and effect relationship between cell phone usage and decrease in semen parameters, a novel in-vitro experiment was designed. Semen sample s were exposed to EMW from a commercially available cellular phone (GSM network, 850 MHz,), and the effect of EMW on semen parameters, DNA integrity [using TdT (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase)mediated dUDP nick-end labelling assay] (Tesarik et al. 2006; Ozmen et al. , 2007) and disturbance in reactive oxygen species metabolism was assessed post exposure. In this study, healthy donors were enrolled to provide semen samples. The semen sample obtained from each volunteer was divided into two parts: EMW-exposed group and control group. Environmental condition was monitored throughout the experiment. The frequency emitted by the cell phone was also confirmed with help of a radiofrequency spectrum analyser. One portion of the sample was exposed to radiation from a commercially available cell phone. A second portion was kept non-exposed for the same time duration. Measurement of sperm concentration, motility and viability was carried out as described by the World Health Organization (1999). Samples also were assessed for reactive oxygen species, total antioxidant capacity and DNA damage (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Conclusion As highlighted above, many aspects of human health have been proposed to be affected by cell phone exposure. Ranging from mild local warmth to possible tumour induction, EMW have been suspected of involvement in many health concerns. At this time, evidence is lacking to strongly prove or disprove any of the proposed harmful effects of EMW. However, the significance of these studies and their possible implications in the future cannot be ignored. Findings and trends available from these studies provide a strong indication to carry out further studies to establish a clearer and more evidence-based conclusion. Both human and animal-based studies have provided a hint that EMW may be involved in the pathogenesis of male infertility, but considerable work is required to provide scientific support for this view. More importantly, studies must be carried out in human semen samples as data from animal studies are limited in their applicability in humans. High-throughput screening techniques may be an important tool to evaluate the molecular effects of EMW on the biological system. Not only will these techniques provide evidence in RBMOnline ® 155 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. de Seze R, Ayoub J, Peray P et al. 1999 Evaluation in humans of the effects of radiocellular telephones on the circadian patterns of melatonin secretion, a chronobiological rhythm marker. Journal of Pineal Research 27, 237–242. Deepinder F, Makker K, Agarwal A 2007 Cell phones and male infertility: dissecting the relationship. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 15, 266–270. Diem E, Schwarz C, Adlkofer F et al. 2005 Non-thermal DNA breakage by mobile-phone radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro. Mutation Research 583, 178–183. Djeridane Y, Touitou T, de Seze R 2008 Influence of electromagnetic fields emitted by GSM-900 cellular telephones on the circadian patterns of gonadal, adrenal and pituitary hormones in men. Radiation Research 169, 337–343. Erogul O, Oztas E, Yildirim I et al. 2006 Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular phone on human sperm motility: an invitro study. Archives of Medical Research 37, 840–843. Falzone N, Huyser C, Fourie F et al. 2008 In-vitro effect of pulsed 900 MHz GSM radiation on mitochondrial membrane potential and motility of human spermatozoa. Bioelectromagnetics 29, 268–276. Federal Communications Commission Available at www. fcc. gov and www. fcc. gov/oet/rfsafety/cellpcs. html [accessed 4 August 2008]. Fejes I, Zavaczki Z, Szollosi J, et al. 005 Is there a relationship between cell phone use and semen quality? Archives of Andrology 51, 385–393. Feychting M 2005 Non-cancer EMF effects related to children. Bioelectromagnetics Suppl. 7, S69–74. Food and Drug Administration Cellular Phone Facts, Questions and Answers. Available at www. fda. gov/cellphones/qa. html [accessed 4 August 2008]. Friedman J, Kraus S, Hauptm an Y et al. 2007 Mechanism of shortterm ERK activation by electromagnetic fields at mobile phone frequencies. Biochemistry Journal 405, 559–568. Geum D, Son GH, Kim K 2002 Phosphorylation-dependent cellular localization and thermoprotective role of eat shock protein 25 in hippocampal progenitor cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 277, 19913–19921. Hardell L, Carlberg M, Ohlson CG et al. 2007 Use of cellular and cordless telephones and risk of testicular cancer. International Journal of Andrology 30, 115–122. Hardell L, Mild KH, Carlberg M, Soderqvist F 2006 Tumour risk associated with use of cellular telephones or cordless desktop telephones. World Journal of Surgical Oncology 4, 74. Hook GJ, Spitz DR, Sim JE et al. 2004 Evaluation of parameters of oxidative stress after in-vitro exposure to FMCW- and CDMAmodulated radiofrequency radiation fields. Radiation Research 162, 497–504. Huber R, Graf T, Cote KA et al. 2000 Exposure to pulsed highfrequency electromagnetic field during waking affects human sleep EEG. Neuroreport 11, 3321–3325. Irmak MK, Fadillioglu E, Gulec M et al. 2002 Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular telephone on the oxidant and antioxidant levels in rabbits. Cell Biochemistry and Function 20, 279–283. Ivaschuk OI, Jones RA, Ishida-Jones T et al. 1997 Exposure of nerve growth factor-treated PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells to a modulated radiofrequency field at 836. 55 MHz: effects on c-jun and c-fos expression. Bioelectromagnetics 18, 223–229. Jung A, Schill WB 2000 [Male infertility. Current life style could be responsible for infertility]. MMW Fortschritte der Medizin 142, 31–33. Kandeel FR, Swerdloff RS 1988 Role of temperature in regulation of spermatogenesis and the use of heating as a method for contraception. Fertility and Sterility 49, 1–23. Kaplan JH 2002 Biochemistry of Na,K-ATPase. Annual Review of Biochemistry 71, 511–535. Lai H,. Singh NP 1996 Single- and double-strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells after acute exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation. International Journal of Radiational Biology 69, 513–521. Laszlo A, Moros EG, Davidson T et al. 2005 The heat-shock factor is not activated in mammalian cells exposed to cellular phone frequency microwaves. Radiation Research 164, 163–172. Lee S, Johnson D, Dunbar K et al. 2005 2. 45 GHz radiofrequency fields alter gene expression in cultured human cells. FEBS Letters 579, 4829–4836. Leszczynski D, Nylund R, Joenvaara S, Reivinen J 2004 Applicability of discovery science approach to determine biological effects of mobile phone radiation. Proteomics 4, 426–431. Leszczynski D, Joenvaara S, Reivinen J et al. 002 Non-thermal activation of the hsp27/p38MAPK stress pathway by mobile phone radiation in human endothelial cells: molecular mechanism for cancer- and blood-brain barrier-related effects. 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Oftedal G, Wilen J, Sandstrom M, et al. 2000 Symptoms experienced in connection with mobile phone use. Occupational Medicine (London) 50, 237–245. Oktem F, Ozguner F, Mollaoglu H et al. 2005 Oxidative damage in the kidney induced by 900-MHz-emitted mobile phone: protection by melatonin. Archives of Medical Research 36, 350–355. Ozguner F, Altinbas A, Ozaydin M et al. 2005 Mobile phone-induced myocardial oxidative stress: protection by a novel antioxidant agent caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Toxicology and Industrial Health 21, 223–230. Ozmen B, Caglar CS, Koster F et al. 2007 Relationship between sperm DNA damage, induced acrosome reaction and viability in ICSI patients. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 15, 208–214. Panagopoulos DJ, Chavdoula ED, Nezis IP, Margaritis LH 2007 Cell death induced by GSM 900-MHz and DCS 1800-MHz mobile telephony radiation. Mutation Research 626, 69–78. 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Confucius (3019 words) Essay Example For Students

Confucius (3019 words) Essay ConfuciusAs Confucius philosophy still remains in the heart of many Chinese people. His images of the greatest professional teacher of all time, the greatest philosopher in Chinese history and his influence toward the future and the past 2000 years of Chinese civilization has made his thought the essence of the Chinese culture. He always said the importance of teaching could change the future of the civilization. And he also encouraged his students to explore the various things to learn, but be very selective and careful. The purpose of Confucius teaching was practical and designed to help each person improve his character and conduct, and perhaps become prepared for an official position in the court. According to one passage in the Analects, Confucius taught four things: culture, conduct, loyalty, and truthfulness.1 Culture consisted of literature and music. Confucius suggested the value of each: Let a man be stimulated by poetry, established in character by the rules of propriety, and perfected by music.2 These pursuits were means by which one may achieve the higher ideal of following the Way. The gentleman extensively studies literature and restrains himself with the rules of propriety. Thus he will not violate the Way.3 And also Set your heart upon the Way. Support yourself by its virtue. Rely on goodness. Find recreation in the arts.4 Confucius put the moral duties before the arts as the essential activities of the gentleman. A young mans duty is to behave well to his parents at home and to in love to all, and to cultivate the friendship of the good. If, when all that is done, he has any energy to spare, then let him study the cultural arts.5 Confucius taught many topics around these subjects, but the most importance of these is the propriety, ritual and the Way of being a Gentleman. From these to achieve the Jen. Confucius had one overwhelming message: if we are to achieve a state of orderliness and peace, we need to return to traditional values of virtue . These values are based entirely on one concept: Jen, which is best, translated as humaneness. This humaneness is a relatively strange concept to Western people, because it is not primarily a practicable virtue. The rules of propriety offered a code of accepted behaviour that demonstrated to themselves and others that they were cultured and proper gentlemen. For Confucius, the gentleman knew and behaved according to the rules of propriety. In the first chapter of Analects, Yu-Tzu gives the value of the rules of propriety. Among the functions of propriety the most valuable is that it establishes harmony. The Way of the ancient kings from this harmony got its beauty. It is the guiding principle of all things great and small. If things go amiss, and he who knows the harmony tries to achieve it without regulating it by the rules of propriety, they will still go amiss.6 Confucius explains what can happen if conduct is not guided by propriety. Courtesy not bounded by the rules of proprie ty becomes tiresome. Caution not bounded by the rules of propriety becomes timidity, daring becomes insubordination, straightforwardness becomes rudeness.7 Nevertheless, Confucius did not believe in over-wallowing in ceremonies, and the feelings should be proper to the situations. In ceremonies it is better to be sparing than extravagant. Funeral ceremonies should be observed in deep sorrow rather than in fear.8 By the same mean, When substance, one becomes pedantic. When substance and refinement are properly blended, then one is a gentleman.9 Confucius knew that the ancient routes had been reduced in his time, and that such reduction was politic. Were anyone today to serve his prince according to the full rules of propriety he would be thought a sycophant.10Many Confucius students were interest to become officials in government and so as Confucius himself, wanted the opportunity to advise rulers. His aim is to put his knowledge into practice. A man may be able to recite the three h undred Odes; but, if when given a post in the government, he does not know how to act, or when sent on a mission to far parts he cannot answer specific questions, however extensive his knowledge may be, of what use is it to him.11 Nevertheless, an official must improve himself and regulate his own conduct before he could hope to rule over others. Hence, self-improvement was prerequisite to engaging in politics. If a minister makes his own conduct correct, he will have no difficulty in assisting in government. But if he cannot rectify himself, how can he possibly rectify others?12 Despite Confucius illustrates wisdom and Jen as essential to ruling, they still must be accomplished with dignity, and according to propriety. He explains why. He whose wisdom brings him into power, needs goodness to secure that power. Else, though he gets it, he will certainly lose it. He whose wisdom brings him into power and who has goodness to secure that power, if he has not dignity to approach the com mon people, they will not respects him. He whose wisdom brought him into power, who has goodness to secure that power, and dignity to approach the common people, if he handles them contrary to the rules of propriety, full excellence is not reached. 13Confucius believed that officials political action should follow the Way. His actions will vary depending on whether the government is following the Way or not. Confucius gives this advice for the different circumstances:Have sincere faith and love learning. Be not afraid to die for pursuing the good Way. Do not enter a state that pursues dangerous courses, nor stay in a chaotic one. When the Way prevails under Heaven, then show yourself; when it does not prevail, then hide. When he Way prevails in your own land and you are poor and in a humble position, are ashamed of yourself. When the Way does not prevail in your land and you are wealthy and in an honourable position, are ashamed of yourself. 14These was someone misunderstand how to put the Way into practice. ChiKang-tzu asked Confucius if it would be a good idea to kill those who had not the Way in order to help those who had the Way. Confucius said, You are there to rule, not to kill. If you desire what is good, the people will be good. The essence of the gentleman is that of wind; the essence of small people is that of grass. And when a wind blows over the grass, then it bends.15 The proper relationship between a ruler and his minister is the ruler should love his people, while the minister should be loyal to the ruler. Confucius explains the proper behaviour of each. How can he be said truly to love, who exacts no effort from the objects of his love? How can he be said to be truly loyal, who refrains from admonishing the objects of his loyalty?16 Confucius summarizes the art of the ruler as follows:A country of a thousand war-chariots cannot be administered unless the ruler attends strictly to business, punctually observes his promises, is economical in exp enditure, loves the people, and uses the labour of the peasantry only at the proper times of year.17The main subject matter in Confucius teachings was how to become a good and virtuous person by improving his own character. When Tzu-lu asked if courage was to be esteemed by the gentleman, Confucius said, The gentleman holds justice to be of highest importance. If a gentleman has courage but neglects justice, he becomes insurgent. If an inferior man has courage but neglects justice, he becomes a thief. 18 Confucius main methods for achieving these virtues was learning. However, learning is not enough to fulfil the need. People must be able to think. He who learns but does not think is lost; he who thinks but does not learn is in danger.19 Confucius also mentions the friendship and the virtues of faithfulness and sincerity. First and foremost, be faithful to your superiors, keep all promises, refuse the friendship of all who are not like you; and if you have made a mistake, do not be afraid of admitting the fact and amending your ways.20 Confucius explain to his students which kinds of friends are beneficial and which are harmful to their characters. There are three sorts of friendships which are advantageous, and three which are injurious. Friendships with the upright, friendships with the sincere, and friendships with those well informed are advantageous. Friendships with those who flatter, friendships with those of weak principle, and friendships with those talk cleverly are injurious.21 The master also reveal there are three sorts of pleasures which are advantageous, and three which are injurious. Finding pleasure in the discriminating study of ceremonies and music, finding pleasure in discussing the good points in the conduct of others, and finding pleasure in having many wise friends, these are advantageous. But finding pleasure in profligate enjoyments, finding pleasure in idle gadding about, and finding pleasure in feasting, these are injurious.22Ritual, was an important subject of study. It has been illustrate by the poetry and music from the study of Confucius. It is also the Way of teaching people to the Gentleman level. If a man is not humane, what has he to do with ritual? If a man is not humane, what has he to do with music?23 Confucius had explain the relationship between ritual and Jen in greater details. Yen Hui asked about humaneness. The master said,To subdue oneself and return to ritual is humane. If for one day a ruler could subdue himself and return to ritual, then all under Heaven would respond to the humaneness in him. For does humaneness proceed from the man himself, or does it proceed from others?do not speak what is contrary to ritual, and make no movement, which is contrary to ritual.24Poetry had broader humanistic values for understanding oneself and other people, and even increased ones awareness of the natural world. My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry? The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. T hey may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. They teach the art of sociability. They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving ones father, and the remoter one of serving ones prince. From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants.25Confucius was also a great lover of music and played some himself. However, the teaching of this art was apparently handed over to the Grand music master to whom Confucius gave his ideas on how music should follow the ideal of the ancient pattern and then allow for some improvisation while still maintaining harmony. Their music in so far as one can find out about it began with a strict unison. Soon the musicians were given more liberty; but the tone remained harmonious, brilliant, consistent, right on till the close.26 Ssu-ma Chien quotes this exact passage, but then goes on to give more information in regard to Confucius use of poetry and music. Farewell To Manzanar EssayThe gentleman has nine cares. In seeing he is careful to see clearly; in hearing he is careful to hear distinctly; in his looks he is careful to be kind, in his manner to be respectful, in his words to be sincere, in his work to be diligent. When in doubt he is careful to ask for information; when angry he has a care for the consequences; and when he sees a chance for gain, he thinks carefully whether the pursuits of it would be right.34The essential purpose of Confucius philosophy was to help people to become good. The propriety, ritual, and the Way to be a Gentleman are just the first step of the Confucius theory. Self-improve, unionize family, rule the state, and conquer the world.35 These are the levels a superior man must go through. In order to become the superior man, self-improvement is the fundamental part of the success. Although Confucius might be not a modern Master, but his sayings and his encouragement of personality development will never be forget. As the Chinese people and the world stepping into the next millennium, Confucius will be in the minds of many people, as they think of the greatest teacher in Chinese history. BibliographyNotes1. Analects 7.24 Cf. A. Waley, The Analects of Confucius (London, 1938)2. Analects 8.83. Analects 6.254. Analects 7.65. Analects 1.66. Analects 1.127. Analects 8.28. Analects 3.49. Analects 6.1610. Analects 3.1811. Analects 13.512. Analects 13.1313. Analects 15.3214. Analects 8.1315. Analects 12.1916. Analects 14.817. Analects 1.518. Analects 17.2319. Analects 2.1520. Analects 9.2421. Analects 16.422. Analects 16.523. Analects 3.3 Confucius, Raymond Dawson (Oxford University Press, 1981)24. Analects 12.1 Confucius, Raymond Dawson (Oxford University Press, 1981)25. Analects 17.926. Analects 3.2327. Lin Yutang, Wisdom of Confucius, p.81-8228. Ibid. p.8229. Ibid. p.8330. Ibid. p.67-6831. Hsu, Cho-Yun, Ancient China in Transition p.161,16332. Analects 12.433. Analects 16.734. Analects 16.10Philosophy

Personal and Managerial Effectiveness

Question: Write an essay on Personal and Managerial Effectiveness. Answer: Introduction In recent times, where many companies are looking for effective measures for better productivity and profitability, managing authorities emphasize on economic globalization and workforce diversity for achieving that objective (Barak 2013). Jonsen et al. (2013) also mentioned that diverse workforce can be attained through hiring individuals having a broad range of characteristics and experience. However, they characteristics ofworkforce diversity also include working personnel with different race, ethnicity, religion, ability and sexual orientation. Podsiadlowski et al. (2013) depicts that the primary advantage of workforce diversity in an organization shows their commitment to embrace cultural differences and traditions. Workforce diversity not only helps an organization towards globalization but it also fulfills the generational gaps by valuing every diverse culture. The major concern of this business report is to analyze the challenge that a manager faces in a diverse workforce. The report also highlights the benefits of effective diversity management within the organization. As a case study, the organization that is selected for this assignment is Tesco Plc. Tesco Plc. is a grocery and general merchandise retailerorganization that is headquartered in the United Kingdom. They have 6800 stores with 476,000 employees, who are serving millions of customers per week and workforce diversity plays a crucial role in the success of this organization (Tesco plc 2016). Literature review Workforce Diversity Diversity in workplace can be illustrated from the circumstance where an employee presents the difference in their culture, perspective, and knowledge and experience in their workplace. Thus, Harvey and Allard (2015) depicts that diversity can be classified into three categories- physical, cultural and socio-economic. Age, gender, race, appearance, color, cognitive style and personality are the physical characteristics that differ in every individual. Ethnic or national origin, marital/family status, sexual orientation, religion and language are the cultural aspects of diversity. Lastly, education, job function, profession and social class are the socio-economic diversity based on which diversity can be explained among the employee in a workplace. An organization must take appropriate steps so that every individual can work with equal pride within the workplace. Advantage of workforce diversity Better productivity Diverse workforce results in better creativity among the working personnel and they discuss their thinking and perspective with each other. Okoro and Washington (2012) also depicts that this sharing knowledge enhances the problem solving power and decision-making ability that helps in a better productive approach for the organization. In case of Tesco Plc. diversity in workplace helps the organization in communicating with diverse customers in the languages they are accustomed in order to gain more customer satisfaction. Increased adaptability Martn Alcazar et al. (2013) mentions that diverse workforce supply a greater variety of solutions to the sourcing and allocation of resources problems through their talents and experiences. This enables the organization to provide a broader service range on a global basis. On the contrary Wambui et al. (2013) illustrates that those organization which supports diversity in their workplace have the best employee, who are serving their best for better productivity. Retain talented workers According to Ryan and Wessel (2015), workforce diversification enhances the competitive edge for any organization and increases the loyalty towards the business procedures. It is evident that if employee gets desirable value in their workplace, the organization can retain their employees by treating them as a valuable asset for the company. Garnero et al. (2014) also depicts that in a diversified workplace overseas employee also gets attracted and join the organization that results in better productivity of their organization. In Tesco Plc the talent hunt is organized for better business outcome and also offer new job roles to talented employees so that they can get fair opportunity in the workplace. Disadvantage of workforce diversity Communication Workforce diversification has numerous advantages, but some disadvantages are also there that needs to be overcome for a better output. Byrd and Scott (2014) demonstrate that due to language and cultural difference some employees cannot communicate with the other people in the workplace as they lack in confidence how other will treat with them. (Saxena 2014) also depicts that some people discriminate other on religious dissimilarity and often harass them which result in low morale and poor work performance. Discrimination The Equality Act 2010 is an effective legislation in UK, which illustrates that every person of an organization should get the equal facility and chance to be in the organization (Council 2012). Some organization does not provide equal opportunities to racial and ethnic minorities group and offer them less salary for the same work compared to other native employees. () also illustrated that in some organization, employees who are physically challenged workers are forced to leave the work as they asked for more paid leaves than other employees. Sex Discrimination Act 1975, Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and Race Relations Act 1976 are some legislation that is regulated against such discrimination so that people with different ability can work with same pride (Widiss 2013). Resistance to change There are some employees in the organization those who refuse to accept the new workplace policies like workplace diversification. Malewar and Nair (2013) describes that these people often decline to work collaboratively and suppress their idea within themselves and behave ruthlessly with the new employees. Ryan and Wessel (2015) hence portrayed that in this way, not only the discipline of the workplace degrades but also the morale of another employee will be declined to a significant level. Implementation of diversity in the workplace Bond et al. (2014) portrays that planning for workforce diversification is difficult and it needs proper knowledge of the different culture of their employees. Standifer et al. (2013) also demonstrate that Tesco Plc hires experts like diversity advocates advice to formulate a plan for introducing new workplace policy that provides equal opportunity to all the employees in the workplace. Kinyanjui (2013) further illustrates that arrangements of resources, proper training classes for structuring and implementing a customized strategy is another difficulty for implementation of the workforce diversification within the organization. Diversity Management In order to facilitate the function of every department of the organization, providing training to the employee for accepting the diverse culture in the workplace is not enough. Managing the implemented workforce diversification organizational policies will is required. Truxillo et al. (2015) suggests that workforce diversity management can be achieved by Tesco Plc if they will hire people based on their performance and not on their culture or religions. Emerson and Murphy (2014) further suggest that managing authorities of the concerned organization must have to rate their qualification according to their achievements and their quality of their work and provide them appropriate career opportunities. Diversity management also focuses on how the authorities treat complaints of favoritism or discrimination in the workplace and take actions to overcome the adversity of the discrimination (Trax et al. 2015). Importance of workforce diversity Mutual Respect Workforce diversity fosters the nature of respecting the other personnel and the differences in their work styles and the cultural differences from where they belong. Wrench (2014) also depicts that employeesrecognize the strengths and talents of their colleagues and sometimes they can get the optimal solution to accomplish their job role. Business Reputation Peretz et al. (2015.) mentioned that if an organization values the people working for them, they will serve their best for the organizations productivity. Valuing the cultural diversity of their employees and then formulated organizational policies according to that will attract new candidates to get associated with Tesco Plc. Kirton and Greene (2015) also enlighten on the fact that business reputations flourish when a company shows their respect for other cultures and people other than their native employees through their aggressive outreach and recruiting efforts. Increased Exposure According to the viewpoint of Colbert et al. (2016), diverse workforce attains the exposure of the cultures and backgrounds of the employees. Martin (2014) also affirms that every employee possesses different ability and experience and traditional generation workers can learn new technologies and their functionalities from the tech-savvy millennial generation employee whereas the contemporary workers will learn about the traditional approach to accomplishing the job they have to complete. Conflict Resolution Richard et al. (2013) mentions that employee who acknowledges the cultural differences between the colleagues are also able to analyze the common point of concern between them. Tesco Plc give importance to a diverse workforce as it makes the employees learn about respecting other members and reduces the likelihood of conflict. Bakar and McCann (2014) further illustrates that workplace diversity preserves the quality of employees relationships and improves the interpersonal relationship among them. Job Promotion According to Guerrero (2013), employees with diverse language skills have the ability to communicate with multicultural people and they can perform well in foreign regions if the organization plans to outsource their business sin other regions. As a result, if an organization desires to reach markets in foreign countries, efficient employees will not only get a chance of promotion to represent their organization in the foreign country, but they also get an opportunity for their career development by finding new and challenging career opportunities (Wanrooy et al. 2013). In addition to that, Kim et al. (2015) illustrates that these employees will be more interested in learning multinational business strategies for the betterment of that organization. Challenge faced by manager in managing diverse workforce Discrimination Marchiondo et al. (2015) portrays that manager have other responsibility to fulfill and thus they often do not have proper time to analyze every person and their behavior in the workplace. Some people discriminate other on religion basis and force them to change their religion that is against of any organizational policy. Barak (2013) illustrates that offensive behavior at work, lack of respect and ignorance, bias in recruitment or promotion and denial of a business license are some of the problems faced by the employee in an organization that a multicultural people faced. Employment terms and conditions Some legislation in UK recognitions protects employees against discrimination based on their religious and cultural beliefs, age, gender and educational qualification. The Equality Act 2010 though assure that everyone should get a job based on their quality but some organization illegally hire some people in less salary that is a major challenge for a manager to look after (Davies 2015). For instance, child labor sand women labor are two different cases where some organization ask them to work extra at a cost of little money. Moreover, Clucas (2012) also depicts that according to Discrimination Act 1995 and Race Relations Act 1976, employee are free from any discrimination however employee themselves do not accept these people which lead to the state of isolation in them that reduces their performance and forces them to resign from their jobs. Poor Communication In a diverse workforce, numerous people belong from different culture and religion and understand different language. Hynes (2015) depicts that it is not possible for a manager to communicate with every person in their known language and hence there is a communication gap between those diverse people and the manager that results in misunderstanding. In order to overcome this adversity, Moran et al. (2014) suggests that managers should encourage their staffs to learn about theircoworkers and communication methods. This can be done through informal gathering and unofficial meetings where employees can share their experience and perception with other. Employee Retention/Resistance Another managerial problem that the manager is facing in a diverse workplace is random resignation of employees from the organization (Guerrero 2013). Kirton and Greene (2015) depicts that individuals who do not consider the diversity plan are the biggest challenge for the managers, as they will never follow the regulations and possess a negative attitude that slows down positive change and decreases productivity. Disorganization Parrotta et al. (2012) enlightens that implementation of diverse workforce in the workplace is crucial otherwise a well-communicated working environment cannot be obtained. Saxena (2014) mentions that managers must have to communicate the diversity plan with the staff through meetings and diversity conferences. However, some employee do not agrees with the terms and policies an origination adopts and this results in conflicts between them, which degrades the productivity and work quality. Proper training According to Bond and Haynes (2014), it is difficult for a manager to take effective steps to train their employees. In a diverse workplace where many people are from diverse culture cannot act in a same way through a common training program. Widiss (2013) on the other hand suggested that a customized training programs can work in such scenario, where the training program will make them learn how to communicate and cooperate in the workplace. Discussion and analysis In this business report, Tesco Plc, which is one of the largest retail industries in the world and the leading retail organization in UK, is considered. In this section, the application and practical implementation of theory will be discussed that is undertaken by Tesco Plc. Regular monitoring of the diversity plan The monitoring of the plan for the workforce diversity initiates from the time when a candidate apply for employment in their career section of the web-portal. Standifer et al. (2013) demonstrates that Tesco Plc is registered with the Equality Commission in Northern Ireland and analyzes the community background of the job applicants and colleagues on an annual basis. Furthermore, Patrick and Kumar (2012) also highlight that Tesco promotes fair participation between the Protestant and Roman Catholic communities. Proper training to employees Bezrukova et al. (2012) illustrates that every year Tesco Plc recruits many employee across the world for their organization so that they can serve the customers with best possible services and understanding. In such circumstance, Kalinoski et al. (2013) depicts that Tesco provides training regarding employment policies and practices to their employees every three years so that they can behave ethically with the people belongs to diverse culture. Equal chance to disabled people According to Roulstone and Williams (2014), Tesco provide equal opportunity to their disables employees and makereasonable adjustments so that their process remains fair. Tesco also provides training and development programs to their special employees so that they can match up the working ability of other employees. In addition to that, Dwertmann and Boehm (2016) also demonstrate that Tesco hires women employee to illustrate their organizational policy that supports women employment. Appropriate action against the one who discriminates other Tesco Plc never considers any form of harassment or discriminationagainst any employee. Richard et al. (2013) illustrates that the managing authorities of Tesco Plc investigates about the persons background if any report will be filed against a person for harassing someone. The concerned organization takes proper disciplinary actionagainst the person that could result in the dismissal with or without notice. Training and education programs Colbert et al. (2016) mentions that effective training will help employee to build skills and value the diversity they have in their workplace. The training programs helps the employee to understand that they can learn a lot from the people who have experience more than them and the working approaches through which the organizational goals can be achieved in a optimal way. Malewar and Nair (2013) also demonstrated that this training program is effective in making the people understand who belong from diverse culture about the communication approach with their colleagues and about their business policies. Diversity Committee Garnero et al. (2014) mentioned that Tesco has formulated a special diversity committee for accomplishing the goals of diversity plans. The primary reason for formulating this diversity committee is to analyze whether the diversity programs aligned with strategic plans. Jonsen et al. (2013) illustrates that this Committee featured speakers that are either the leaders or the employee who speaks their experience and their cultural importance and how they can implement the working approach in their culture for better outcome. Tesco Plc also emphasizes on diversity workshops, mentoring and community outreach programs for supporting the diverse culture in their workplace. Conclusion In this business report, the challenges faced by a manager of an organization in the workplace are considered. The assignment also enlightens the effective diversity management in the workplace so that the organization can achieve their business objectives by valuing their cultural and traditional belief and respecting their age, gender and qualification differences. Tesco Plc is the organization that is taken for this assignment which is a leading retail industry that serves thousands of customers every day with efficiency. Discrimination against the employees is the main reason for the poor performance of the employees in the workplace. Moreover, proper management of employment terms and conditions are also a big challenge for the managers as the employees must have to follow the policies provide by the organization. In addition to that, as people belong from diverse culture there is a high chance of poor communication among them as these employees are unable to understand their languages and culture. Providing proper training to the employee regarding the workforce diversity plan is another challenge that is faced by the managers in the workplace and can be overcome by regular monitoring of the diversity program so that all the activities in the workplace can be accomplished. The manager can resolve the diversity issues in the workplace by offering equal chance to disabled people and minority group and take appropriate action against the one who discriminates other against the organizational policies. Furthermore, training and education programs and formulation of diversity committee are also crucial aspect through which the workforce diversity can be managed. Recommendations Regular assessment of diversity in the workplace Assessing and evaluating the diversity process is an integral part of a management system within an organization. Thus, it is crucial to scrutinize the diversity plan in the workplace and monitor whether every employee follow the diversity plan at a regular interval of time. Development of diversity program It is also important to develop the existing plan according to the changing requirement and demands of the employee. Every year there are so many recruitments in Tesco and hence it is an obligatory approach to develop the plan. Training programs should be updated from time to time so that the employees can communicate well with their multicultural colleges. Attitude of openness in the workplace The managing authorities of Tesco should communicate with each employee and should learn about the problems their employees are facing in term of discrimination. In this way, the perceptual, cultural and language barriers can be overcome and the employees feel free to trust their authorities that will motivate them to work for Tesco Plc. Promote diversity Tesco Plc. should take initiatives for promoting their cultural diversity in society. They can publish regular articles in newspapers or sponsor their products in cultural activities from their culturally diverse employee. In this ways, not only they can accomplish voluntary work but also they ca enhance their corporate social responsibility activities that will help Tesco Plc to gain reputation in the community. Recognition The manager of Tesco Plc should enjoy the difference among the culture and tradition among their workplace and welcome their knowledge and consider this as a valuable experience. The existing employee must encourage them to represent their culture's etiquette practicesand everyone should treat them fairly by providing them job responsibility according to their ability and offer desired promotions and recognition in the workplace. Customizable employee satisfaction survey A customizable employee satisfaction survey can represent the exact requirement that is included in the diversity plan. In this way, the managing authorities can assure that everyones perception is being taken into consideration in the development of the diversity plan. Reference List Bakar, H.A. and McCann, R.M., 2014. Matters of demographic similarity and dissimilarity in supervisorsubordinate relationships and workplace attitudes.International Journal of Intercultural Relations,41, pp.1-16. 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