How to Become a Shot Essay Guru

Step by step instructions to Become a Shot Essay Guru Step by step instructions to Become a Short Essay Guru It doesn’t matter what subject you have: in the end you will be approached to finish a composed task to show teacher how effectively you ace the point. While schoolwork and coursework are very concise and directly forthright, it might be very befuddling to compose an article. At the point when an understudy gets a task to finish a short exposition, he turns out to be very glad however ‘short’ doesn’t mean ‘simple’ and regularly turns into a more concerning issue. This article plans to assist you with avoiding all the submerged stones and complete a short paper you can be glad for. The fundamental test of a short exposition is that you have to restrain your thoughts and contentions to a specific number of words, staying nice and profound simultaneously. The following is a rundown of prerequisites, which you have to follow not relying upon a kind of a short exposition you need to finish. Make a layout At the point when you get an undertaking just because, particularly on the off chance that you have to pick a subject all alone, it is anything but difficult to become mixed up in a tremendous measure of data you need to process. In such a case, it is valuable to make a diagram and record all the contemplations and thoughts, which you need to incorporate to your content. At the point when you definitely comprehend what to expound on and are prepared to begin, don’t neglect to separate your musings into comparing passages and parts, which will make the entire content smooth and justifiable. Your short exposition should comprise of a one-passage long presentation, collection of three sections and a one-section end. Presentation With regards to a short paper, presentation area turns out to be considerably progressively significant, as it is typically not in excess of a few sentences in length. You have to make them understood and appealing, convincing the peruser to proceed. The primary sentence ought to incorporate the principle thoughts of the entire paper and urge the crowd to continue perusing. The last sentence ought to contain your proposal articulation. It mirrors the issue for the entire paper, which ought to be doubtful and thought inspiring. Body The principle three sections of your entire short exposition ought to be dedicated to the body. It contains principle data on the point, bolstered by proof, different realities and believable data. Each section should begin with a contention or an announcement, following with its strong realities. Make sure to utilize different developments to make your language familiar and smooth. Moreover, always remember about the organizing style, as it will essentially expand your evaluations. It is valuable to incorporate statements and realities however don’t neglect to appropriately refer to them and give trustworthy sources. The body sections ought to contain all the fundamental realities yet at the same time be meaningful and smooth, not overpowering the peruser with inordinate data. Ends The last passage is your opportunity to introduce the got outcomes, so you have to give all the data in a couple brief sentences, summarizing your entire work. To begin with, you have to show how the body sections relate with your postulation articulation, and afterward make an end to close the brought up issue. It doesn’t imply that your decisions ought to speak to similar considerations. Attempt to offer another point of view toward the theme and advance new thoughts. On the off chance that your acquaintance points with mix the intrigue, your decisions ought to fulfill the peruser and close the subject. Editing It doesn’t matter how extraordinary your short exposition is: on the off chance that it contains botches, you are destined to get low evaluations and re-try it once more. Ensure you alter and edit your paper subsequent to contending it to take out lexical, linguistic and orthographical botches. Revising all the mistakes will make your article perfect and won’t divert the peruser from your musings and thoughts.

Apple Store Marketing Opportunities

The historical backdrop of Apple Store Previously known as Apple Computer Inc, Apple store is a worldwide organization that produces PCs, programming, and customer gadgets. The significant product offering for Apple store involves PCs, iPhone, and iPod music store.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Apple Store Marketing Opportunities explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The organization was built up in 1976 by two electronic architects in particular Wozniak and Jobs who discharged the primary PC named as Apple 1. From that point forward, Apple store has ruled PC advertise through its imaginative items, for example, the Power Mac and Macintosh however experienced showcasing issues in 1990s. The organization turned into the new market pioneer in purchaser gadgets with the most recent achievement extending from items, for example, iPod Touch, iTunes, iPhone, and iPad (Apple Inc., 2011). Right now, Apple store is a worldwide innovator in innovation with income totaling to $60 billion. In the monetary 2010, it overwhelmed Microsoft as far as market capitalization (Apple Inc., 2011). Markets for Apple Store works Apple store sells its items in different markets over the world. For instance, through retail outlets, for example, online store, the organization offers various items to purchasers and different business ventures. Moreover, Apple has put resources into programs that advance affiliate deals including ASCP which centers around certain affiliate areas and APRP which gives mastery in items and client assistance (USSEC, 2009). Macintosh store similarly offers PC items to government organizations, and inventive markets inside its land area. The business sectors are considered critical to outsider PC applications and equipment designers. The unrivaled extension and processing execution of Apples items emerge to be the major consumers’ fascination inside the market. Additionally, Apple offers PC items to clients inside logical market just as in the data innovation markets. Contenders The significant product offering for Apple is the PCs showcase. This organization anyway faces various rivalries from the U.S. based organizations close by other remote enterprises. In the U.S., rivalries rise up out of Hewlett-Packard (HP), Dell Computers, and Compaq Corporation.Advertising Looking for exposition on business financial matters? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Foreign market competition appears from Sony, Toshiba, and new contestants, for example, Acer Computers. These organizations appear to have caught critical pieces of the pie. A portion of these contenders sell their PCs produced using other working frameworks, chop down their costs and lower item edges so as to increase upper hand. Consequently, the major serious components are value, item quality, highlights, unwavering quality, advancement, structure, conveyance abilities, accessibilit y, and friends notoriety. Government Regulatory Roles Despite insignificant guideline on PCs promoting, there are explicit laws that have consistently influenced showcase rivalry for Apple store. The copyright law for instance restrains the degree to which the organization can get innovation while it additionally permits different organizations to utilize Apple’s innovation to certain level (USITC, 1995). In 1989, Xerox charged Apple for the unlawful usage its innovation which the last organization utilized in making Mac programming. In 1992, Apple blamed HP and Microsoft for copyright encroachment yet the court decided for the denounced. Openings and Issues confronting Apple Store Like different organizations, Apple progressively faces issues relating to ecological contamination. Electronic squanders are viewed as significant supporters of natural corruption and any strategy tending to such an issue influences Apple store activities (Suraj, n.d). Moreover, as Apple keeps on extending all inclusive, the all inclusive lack of mastery and gifted work keeps on influencing its serious edge. By the by, Apple has the chance to misuse developing markets, for example, Brazil and India other than using modest work accessible in these economies. All in all, Apple store has become a market chief in PC and electronic industry dependent on its unassuming foundation. Since Apple has monstrous market all around, it has beaten solid rivalry in the business however the organization must think about government guidelines and issues that may influence its future. Apple store needs to misuse promoting openings made by rising economies to stay serious. References Apple Inc., (2011). The new, quicker MacBook Air. Web.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Apple Store Marketing Opportunities explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Suraj, S. E-squander and ecological corruption. Web. US Securities Exchange Commission, (2009). Structure 10-K: A pple Inc. Web. US International Trade Commission, (1995). Worldwide intensity of the US program and administration businesses. Web. This paper on Apple Store Marketing Opportunities was composed and put together by client Brenda English to help you with your own investigations. You are allowed to utilize it for exploration and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; be that as it may, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

Discuss the nature of dyslexia and implication for identification and Essay

Examine the idea of dyslexia and suggestion for recognizable proof and assesment - Essay Example It is to be recollected this is simply just a single part of the working definition, and this issue is subtle as in there are many varying assessments about the meaning of this issue in the writing, thus numerous other various definitions exist. What all laborers around there acknowledge originates from The Department of Education and Skills in their Framework for Understanding Dyslexia advise on speculations and ways to deal with dyslexia. In it they have introduced a down to earth way to deal with characterize dyslexia. Albeit truly, this word implies trouble with words or language, this strict importance doesn't thoroughly apply to the confusion of dyslexia by any means. The facts demonstrate that there are numerous purposes behind trouble to learn, read, or compose. For these people, these troubles don't appear to be so effectively logical (DfES, 2004, 5). It has in this way been characterized by them as a particular trouble, regularly portrayed by an uncommon equalization of apt itudes. Dyslexia influences data preparing (DfES, 2004, 5) in all the structures, accepting, holding, recovering and organizing the data and this speed of data handling turns out to be extremely drowsy (DfES, 2004, 5). Aptitudes, for example, perusing, composing, utilizing images, and doing computations are on the whole subject to data preparing arrangement of the human mind. ... In this way, it is beneficial to look at the definition that is for all intents and purposes used while managing specialized curriculum to these individuals. The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice alludes to explicit learning challenges in a segment considering 'cognizance and learning'. The Code states: 'Youngsters who show highlights of . . . explicit learning challenges, for example, dyslexia . . . require explicit projects to help progress in insight and learning. . . . A portion of these kids may have related tactile, physical and conduct challenges that intensify their necessities' (DfES, 2001a, 7: 58). In this setting it is of most extreme significance to recollect that it isn't identified with insight and may happen in various structures, mellow, moderate, and serious. Thusly, their individual profiles differ from one another, with each having their one of a kind qualities and shortcomings, and in this manner uniqueness. In this task, the idea of dyslexia will be exam ined in a more prominent detail in the accompanying sections so these traits can be utilized for distinguishing proof and evaluation of this issue. Nature With proceeding with examination into the zone, there has been significant advancement in recognizing the reasons for dyslexia so powerful intercession could be intended to break into the pattern of disappointment (Fawcett, 2001, 25). This advancement has been huge since the normally troubling standpoint in such people is not, at this point miserable. It has been noticed that the stage is set for undertaking aggressive, multi-disciplinary, multi-viewpoint ventures planned for reclassifying the field of dyslexia and learning troubles as the field of learning capacities

English Notes Literature and Drama free essay sample

What emotional procedures have writers used to pass on thoughts as well as convictions in a few plays you have examined, and how compelling have they been? Arthur Miller utilizes a purposeful anecdote, which is the Salem Witch Trials as the McCarthy idea from the asses. Similarly as the puritan residents are charging any regular citizen as a witch, any individual, including the creator himself had been blamed for being a Soviet Russian during the Red Scare. He utilizes this play to present his convictions and thoughts in regards to both the Red Scare and the witch rills and how totally silly they were. He firmly related the witch preliminaries to the show preliminaries he was set under in the ass. Investigate the manners by which writers have utilized monologs as well as speeches in at any rate two plays you have contemplated. 2. Plays utilize different sorts of auxiliary divisions, for example, prefaces and epilogs, act and scene divisions, even painstakingly positioned breaks. We will compose a custom exposition test on English Notes: Literature and Drama or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Examine the sensational uses made of these divisions in at any rate two plays you have contemplated. 3. A play should make you snicker or should make you cry. Concerning at any rate plays you have examined, talk about the techniques dramatists use to create passionate reaction in their crowds. Analyses: 1 . A satisfactory to smart response will choose some critical monologs or potentially talks from in any event two plays and look at the manners by which these addresses are utilized by the producers. A decent to great answer may offer nearer investigation of the chose monologs as well as talks, looking at intently different manners by which screenwriters utilize such addresses to affect their shows all in all and offering nearer examination of the uniqueness of every producer approach. . A sufficient to smart response will distinguish fitting shows that different parts of at any rate two plays and will analyze a portion of the manners by which these divisions influence the emotional introduction of the plays. A decent to incredible answer may offer progressively explicit insight about the kinds of divisions that happen in the plays and sep arate all the more intently how the decisions of every writer lead to the viability of specific parts of the dramatization. 3.An satisfactory to smart response will distinguish a few techniques by which in any event two playwrights create enthusiastic reactions and offer strong detail for how such strategies work, looking at the selection Of techniques utilized by the producers or potentially the results accomplished. A decent to great answer may offer a more top to bottom and point by point conversation of the techniques utilized by playwrights to produce feeling, plainly assessing the uniqueness of creating feeling in the different shows, and offering, maybe, a differentiation among satire and tragedy.An satisfactory to great scholarly analysis will: Grasp the fundamental circumstance of the tobacco selling/purchasing and the monetary circumstance of the section ; note the expectation and strain of the different individuals from the family ; Identify the specific mentalities of the mother, the dad and the story voice according to one another in this circumstance ; Follow the ramifications of the utiliza tion of the ticket in the exchanges ; comprehend the finish of the mornings occasion.

Mercedes Zuniga Essays (779 words) - Literature, Fiction

Mercedes Zuniga Educator Juarez English 1B: 9363 May 11, 2017 Verse Analysis In the sonnet, The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe, the setting is depicted in such a way, that it leaves one with the vibe of uneasiness and interest. It is made realized that the storyteller is home alone around evening time, attempting to disregard his endless pity for the loss of his halt spouse, Lenore. H e accepts that she is st sick with him thus the stirring blinds and strange thumping appears to strangely energize him. He considerably later thinks he hears his cherished's strides and scents her fragrance. His pain is influencing hello there s mind into believing that Lenore is in certainty with him , when truly she is no more. It is reasonable to accept that the torment one experiences when such catastrophes happen is colossal yet , who realized the hurt could be huge to cause one to become frantic . All through the sonnet, The Raven , there is proof of dejection, an abhorrent soul and frenzy . It seems to have been difficult for the speaker to deal with Lenore's passing and that h as unbalance d his enthusiastic and mental state. As the sonnet goes on, the storyteller loses control with his creative mind when he accepts he has seen a talking raven . This raven is portrayed dark and is usually seen as an image for shrewdness, passing and even the extraordinary. Wh ile attempting to adapt to his misfortune , the raven just comes to squash the narrato r's expectations of ever being with Lenore again . What this inauspicious, gawky, thin, and dismal flying creature of yesteryear Meant in croaking Nevermore. (71-72). The raven isn't just representing passing; it is representing a demise without paradise. In the event that there isn't a paradise, at that point demise just jus t implies the end with no the great beyond. The raven causes the storyteller to feel anxiety with the steady token of what occurs in the afterlife. The raven even has an alarming looking element to him that makes him wonder on the off chance that it truly is only a fowl or a fallen angel, as Poe has noted, And his eyes have all the appearing of an evil presence's that is dreaming (105). The end picture of the winged creature is very unique in relation to his starting passageway. At the outset he just flew in as a typical fowl would and at long last he is viewed as an evil spirit with consuming eyes. The storyteller is currently totally frightened with the flying creature, as he's presently the image of unadulterated malevolence. The raven is wherever in the sonnet, with just rehashing single word again and again. The popular line being, Statement the Raven, Nevermore . ( 48) . As this word is being said to him persistently, it starts to crush him, and diverts him from a miserable, on edge fellow into a crazy man encountering mental trips. He can't admit to himself that his adored has passed on and hence he asks the raven inquiries. Tell this spirit with distress loaded if inside the far off Aidenn, It will catch a sainted lady whom the holy messengers name Lenore (93-94) . Questions that he knew would be replied with nevermore', yet he sought after Lenore's prosperity. For even j ust the idea that perhaps passing isn't lasting. From an obvious viewpoint, it is conceivable to state that the raven's v oice was up and down a fantasy the storyteller experience d. Going distraught from sorrow is an extremely amazing subject all through the sonnet. The melancholy the storyteller experiences is brought about by the forlornness and division he feels for the loss of his better half. At the point when the flying creature says nevermore' just because he believes it's gibberish yet sooner or later the fowl persuades him into speculation what he is stating is valid. The stunning pr ophecy surprises the speaker and leads him to the edge of craziness. What's more, my spirit from out that shadow that falsehoods gliding on the floor Shall be lifted - nevermore! (107-108). The storyteller's craziness can likewise be accused on th e setting in which the sonnet happens. As he is in the house, in solitude,

Connecting with Classmates

Connecting with Classmates When you are a student at a large university such as Illinois, you need to consider many sources of help, including classmates. This was a concept which took me a long time to learn, and now I want to stress the importance to all of you  to do so earlier than I had. In many classes, such as Physics 325, many of the homework problems require little subtleties, which others may notice when you do not. This was a source of a struggle for me early, as without office hours, I could not finish work. Then finally I started asking other students questions while at office hours, which seemed to help the most, and finally, one student provided the push I needed. From Theology Gaming One peer asked for my number so we could trade ideas/notes. I thought this might help me work on assignments out of office hours and accelerate my work efficiency. From then on, I asked many students for contact information in multiple classes. I figured  if I could get more people to speak with, then I could get more work done and return the favor, as well. This philosophy proved to be crucial when I had a difficult problem and little time to solve it. I had a seemingly impossible physics problem which had me hung up at one step. That was when I remembered that I could contact one of my peers who I knew excelled  at the topic. Literally within minutes, I had a response which left me frustrated at being so oblivious to the concept but happy I could finish. From Active Rain Although my experience is general in nature, I suspect that classmate  support is important at any school, including the University of Illinois. When I transferred here, I felt only teachers would be my main source of academic contact, other than maybe studying with friends, but I quickly realized otherwise. Jacob Class of 2018 I am a transfer student studying Engineering Physics in the College of Engineering. I started with the Illinois Engineering Pathways program through the College of DuPage. I am from Naperville, Illinois.

How We Can Help To End World Hunger - Free Essay Example

Millions of individuals are consistently affected by global problems of overwhelming proportions. One of the most prevalent issues among global citizens is world hunger. Individuals are living hungry, undernourished lives because the proper nutrients to sustain a healthy lifestyle is nonexistent. However, there are global organizations that focus on ending world hunger and one of the most influential organizations is The Hunger Project. The Hunger Project addresses that Today there are 821 million people who are chronically undernourished (Know Your World). Each year the number of people who are starving is steadily inclining and it needs to be stopped. Not only are organizations helping to create change to this issue, but history proves that a single individual can impact this issue for the better and may even change the world. Mary Ellen McNish is one of the extraordinary individuals who is inspiring others and committed to ending world hunger. McNish is the CEO and president of The Hunger Project, and she travels the world to bring awareness and change to this issue. Mary has a passion for helping the malnourished, but this does not mean that no-one else can help. Every human being can and should contribute to help change this worldly issue just like Mary Ellen McNish. To continue, world hunger is prevalent on a global scale. To the present day, there are still millions of individuals who are without food and are severely hungry. However, having the proper nutrients and adequate amounts of food are both necessities that every living soul needs to survive and keep a healthy lifestyle. According to an article published by World Food Program USA, Ending hunger and malnutrition is one of the greatest challenges of our time, but itrs solvable. In a world where enough food exists to feed everyone, zero hunger is at our fingertips (Problems of Hunger). There are countries with more than half of its population who are starving including, Burundi, Ethiopia, Zambia and more. Surprisingly enough, the world produces plenty of amounts of food to feed the planet, but it may not be affordable for some individuals, or it just goes to waste. A Journal of Sustainable Agriculture states, According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the world produces more than 1/2 times enough food to feed everyone on the planet. Thatrs already enough to feed 10 billion people, the worldrs 2050 population projected population peak (595). It is important to comprehend that hunger is caused by poverty but not scarcity of food. World hunger can stem from many causes including poverty, climate change, and food shortages. The list can go on and on. World hunger is detrimental to millions of individuals livelihood, and it must be eliminated. However, on the bright side, there are organizations and individuals who are constantly helping to create change in this worldwide issue. To follow up, The CEO of The Hunger Project, Mary Ellen McNish, is continuing to impact the world by helping end world hunger. Mary became the CEO and president of The Hunger Project in 2010. Before this organization announced McNish to be the next CEO and president, McNish worked as the General Secretary of the American Friends Service Committee. To say the least, helping others is her passion, and it is what she was born to do. The Hunger Project has a global mission stating, To end hunger and poverty by pioneering sustainable, grassroots, women-centered strategies and advocating for their widespread adoption in countries throughout the world (The Hunger Project). This organization has given Mary McNish multiple opportunities to follow through with her passion for feeding those who are starving. McNish gets the chance to travel the world to places including Africa, Asia, and Latin-America. In Africa, for example, Mary with many others who are part of The Hunger Project work together to create epicenters which bring the community together to carry out ideas that will meet the basic needs of the community. McNish gets to travel to different countries where people are in need of the most help. While she travels to different countries she gets to meet new people, hear their stories and struggles and figure out how to help them. McNish put her tenacity into this organization and passionately believes The Hunger Project can end world hunger. In Mary Ellenrs words, Ending world hunger is a project on one hand but its an opportunity on the other and I think itrs only a matter of time (Interview with Mary Ellen McNish). Mary Ellen McNish is positively impacting world hunger one step at a time. Furthermore, individuals who have a passion for ending world hunger should not be the only people involved in improving this issue. Any average person can be a huge help in ending hunger. The article published by Rise Against Hunger written by Karen Cook, explains that it is a necessity for all individuals to engage in the issue of world hunger. According to Cook, We have to get people to care and to engage themselves and their families in a hands-on way in the fight against hunger (Cook). There are many ways to get involved and it is important to know how to volunteer. First, everyone should become informed of this global issue and how its impacting the world. A person can simply donate either a small contribution or canned goods to an organization of their choice. This contribution does not need to be big because in this case, anything can be a huge impact. A donation may be used to package and send food to other countries to feed a family or even a whole community. Second, there are many other organizations that take volunteers daily, for example, Feed My Starving Children. Feed My Starving Children is a non-profit organization that packages, distributes, and sends food to other countries around the world. Every year Feed My Starving Children produces around 1-2 million meals. A person can volunteer an hour of their time to have a fun and meaningful experience. By helping to feed those who are hungry a person can make a tangible impact in the world. It is vital for everybody to reach out to their communities and learn how they can volunteer to help change the world. Third, any person can help end hunger by being an advocate. Being an advocate for world hunger means having a voice in the fight against starvation. People can learn how to build the will to end hunger by joining other groups. The average person can join the Alliance to End Hunger group because this organization focuses on standing up for what needs to be done to end world hunger. There are many other ways to contribute to this global issue and all average individuals should put in the effort to strive for positive change. It may take a few years to accomplish, but world hunger can be stopped. To reiterate, hunger is a constant global issue that is affecting millions of people all around the world. It is surprising to know that the world creates more than enough food to go around, yet people are still going hungry. The Hunger Project among many other organizations is continuing to fight against world hunger and hopes to bring communities together to help fulfill the basic needs by having food for all to eat. There is a huge appreciation towards these organizations and for the extraordinary individuals like Mary Ellen McNish who are passionate about ending hunger. All global citizens should get involved in this matter because it is extremely important to help the world and make it a better place. Living in a world where every single human being is fed and satisfied is a world that all should want to live in. Works Cited Cook, Karen. 5 Things You Can Do in 2016 to Help End World Hunger. The Hunger Project, 29 Feb. 2016, www.thp.org/our-work/our-approach/. Holt-Gimenez, Eric, et al. We Already Grow Enough Food for 10 Billion People and Still Cant End Hunger. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, vol. 36, no. 6, 2012, pp. 595â€Å"598., doi:10.1080/10440046.2012.695331. Interview with Mary Ellen McNish, CEO The Hunger Project YouTube, uploaded by The Global Hunger Project, 29 Oct. 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFlPtqcjcOo. Know Your World: Facts About World Hunger Poverty. The Hunger Project, Nov. 2017, www.thp.org/knowledge-center/know-your-world-facts-about-hunger-poverty/. Problems of Hunger. World Food Program USA, 2018, www.wfpusa.org/wfps-work/problems-of-hunger/.

Neural Networks in Investments Essay example - 2681 Words

Neural Networks in Investments I. ABSTRACT Investment managers often find themselves overwhelmed with the large amount of data obtained from the financial markets. Most of the data available is numeric and noisy in nature, making the decision-making process harder. These decisions usually rely on the integration of statistical measures that attempt to compress much of the data and qualitative depictions such as graphs and bar charts with news events and other pertinent information. Investment decisions usually involve non-linear relationships among the various components of the data. Computers in general, are very adept at dealing with large amounts of numeric information. However, some algorithms are crucial in analyzing and†¦show more content†¦At the simplest level, neural networks are a new way of analyzing data. The revolutionary aspect of neural networks is their ability to learn and trace the complex patterns and trends in data. Neural networks are made up of neurons and behave like the human brain, and has th e ability to apply knowledge from past experience to new problems. Neural networks acquire this knowledge by training on a set of data. After the network has been trained and validated, the model may be applied to data it has not seen previously for prediction, classification, time series analysis or data segmentation. Unlike traditional statistical methods, neural networks do not require assumptions about the model form. A statistical analysis requires a certain form to be assumed such as linearity, which characterizes relationships between variables. Neural networks are more tolerant of imperfect data, such as the presence of missing values or other data quality problems. Neural networks perform better than traditional statistical methods when the model form is unknown or nonlinear, or when the problems are complex with highly inter-related relationships. In a dynamic environment, neural networks are flexible tools and have the capacity to learn rapidly and change quickly. As the data values and outcomes change, the model quickly learns and adapts itself. Rule based systemsShow MoreRelated Artificial Intelligence and Investing Essay1648 Words   |  7 Pagesmoney to an endeavour with the exception of obtaining profit. Investing activities require data identification, asset valuation (the process of determining the worth of something), and risk management (the process of managing the uncertainty in investment decision-making). Artificial intelligence techniques can be applied to financial investing, especially in the areas of credit risk assessment and stock valuation. In the future, we can expect that the techniques of artificial intelligence will beRead MoreChapter 11 Review Questions1 What Is1233 Words   |  5 Pagesknowledge is the expertise and experience of organizational members that has not been formally documented Describe the stages in the knowledge management value chain. A. Acquire: knowledge discovery, data mining, neural networks, genetic algorithms, knowledge workstations, expert knowledge networks B. Store: document management systems, knowledge databases, expert systems C. Disseminate: intranet portals, push e-mail reports, search engines, collaboration D. Apply: decision support systems, enterpriseRead MoreWhen Popularity Of Machine Learning Models Increased, A Number Of Automated Trading Systems1154 Words   |  5 Pagesnancial predictions. At rst, White (1988) applied articial neural networks (ANN) to reveal nonlinear regularities in the IBM stock price movements. Subsequently, Kamijo and Tanigawa (1990) used a recurrent neural network for the recognition of price patterns in the Japanese market. Cheng, Wagner, and Lin (1996) used an ANN to predict the weekly price direction of the 30-year U.S. treasury bonds and averaged an annualized return on investment of 17:3%. Later, A.-S. Chen, Leung, and Daouk (2003) predictedRead MoreCritical Analysis Of A Neural Network759 Words   |  4 Pageswe have encountered one major problem that is how to interpret a neural network given its black box characteristics. We really wanted to try ourselves, giving interpretation of our results so that we dug into the existing literature and found out a very interesting research paper written by Garson in 1991. In  « Illuminating the black box: a randomization approach for understanding variable contributions in artificial neural networks  », Olden and al. describes Garson’s algorithm very concisely so thatRead MoreExplanation Of A Neural Network735 Words   |  3 Pageswe have encountered one major problem that is how to interpret a neural network given its black box characteristics. We really wanted to try ourselves giving interpretation to our results so that we dug into the existing literature and found out a very interesting research paper wri tten by Garson in 1991. In  « Illuminating the black box: a randomization approach for understanding variable contributions in artificial neural networks  », Olden and al. describes Garson’s algorithm very concisely so thatRead MoreProject Evaluation And Selection Of Interconnected Projects933 Words   |  4 Pagesexpansion projects in transportation networks are almost always interdependent. 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Neural Networks Data mining process might also rely on sophisticated artificial intelligence or machine learning algorithms such as neural networks, that uses the data from training that helps in creating more accurate projections and precise estimations and predictions. Neural networks are structured just in the same pattern as of human brain. Human brain has millions of neurons, similarly neural networks are comprised of simulated neurons, they areRead MoreRobotic Assembly At Both Positive And Negative Sides1520 Words   |  7 Pagescatch the movement control strategy via biological organisms for the abstracting of neural algorithms aim. They present status of control of biological movement experience, but it is still too divided to make possible robot control building base on a biological basis which would be successful rival with conventional algorithms [3]. There are a number of promising approaches based on concepts of neural networks. First of those, they give a general overview about the issues which are solved and

America s Regional Division Is One Of A Kind - 1114 Words

A majority of countries around the world are divided regionally, whether that be states or provinces, and Canada s regional division is one of a kind. Regionalism in Canada is more prevalent than anywhere else, and each region has a substantial amount of force and sway within Canada. The strength of regionalism in Canada stems from its federal government system, Canada s geological make-up, and the prominence of the Quebecois. In the context of Canada, â€Å"region† will be considered as the provinces within Canada. Regionalism is defined as â€Å"The theory or practice of regional rather than central systems of administration or economic, cultural, or political affiliation† (Oxford Dictionary). In the case of Canada, the central government is†¦show more content†¦13 ). The nation-wide impact of Quebec does not hold true for all regions, as they vary greatly, as the provinces within Canada cover a very large area of land. Canada is the second largest country in the world by land mass, yet it is the thirty-eighth most populous country in the world. What that ratio means is a significant distance between the concentrated masses of people in Canada and the available resources from province to province vary largely due to the considerable amount of land the provinces occupy. In British Columbia, the geological make-up consists of long coastal region, rainforests, and large mountain ranges, whereas the province directly next to it is composed of flat fields and numerous pockets of oil. The economy of each province thus relies on its natural resources, and the vast difference between each province puts even more importance on the functioning of their respective provincial government. The plethora of economic sources for each province is a lot to focus on for one central federal government. A provincial government can pay attention more closely on their respective economic sources, thus giving a provincial g overnment more power and importance. The regional economies created spur on cultures and lifestyles associated with it. Each individual province of Canada has its own unique culture and encompass otherShow MoreRelatedDnata case study780 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Dnata - Marketing Contents Introduction In Middle East area, Dnata is one of the largest air travel services supplier. It also has its services internationally. It provides services mainly in three foundations: Travel services, Ground Handling and Cargo. For these three divisions Dnata has specific business systems which include online booking. Worldwide Dnata operates 20 airports in nine countries for ground Handling. DnataRead MoreOrganizational Structure Of An Organization1085 Words   |  5 PagesAn organizational structure is a composition that specifies a company s hierarchical structure. There are various kinds of conformations that organizations can choose to build their business around. The organizational structure exemplifies the way in which control and business affairs have been appointed within the organization. Organizational structure encompasses the design of an organization though people positioning and responsibilities in order for organizational goals can be reached. SomeRead MoreRunning Head: Effective and Efficient Control Systems of Wal-Mart1354 Words   |  6 Pagesfor Wal-Mart was 1962. At this time, Sam Walton s stores in Arkansas and Kansas were already facing competition from regional discount chains, such as K-Mart and Target. Sam traveled the country to study this radical, new retailing concept and was convinced it was the wave of the future. Today, Sam Walton has a global company with more than 1.8 million associates worldwide and nearly 6,500 stores and wholesale clubs across 14 countries. 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Metress Slaughterhouse Blues: Book Review Michael Farhoud Slaughterhouse Blues: Book Review Michael Farhoud In Slaughterhouse Blues, anthropologist Donald Stull and social geographer Michael Broadway explore the advent, history, and implications of modern food production. The industrialized system behind what we eat is one of the most controversial points of political interest in our society today. Progressions in productiveRead MoreAnswer for Abb Case: Strategic Rise, Decline, and Renewal2238 Words   |  9 Pagesse) Yin Wang(S125066@student.hb.se) Silvia Abendaà ±o Delgado(S124778@student.hb.se ) Introduction In this paper, we research the five solutions to the case of ABB: strategic rise, decline, and renewal. We conduct our solutions by analysis of the kinds of CEOs’ strategies and structures from 1988 to 2008. 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Summer Creative Writing Programs You Are to Attend in 2018

Being a student is not really easy because there are many impediments and challenges that are faced only by this category of young people. The main objective is to develop all learning skills in all possible ways. There are no boundaries for the self-perfection. Accordingly, students should never stop. They ought to be on a constant move to improve their skills and enrich knowledge. One of the most effective ways to do that is to choose one of the numerous summer creative writing programs. There are a lot of organizations and educational institutions that suggest students attending special courses that can sustain and improve their writing capabilities. This is a tremendous advantage, which will help them prepare for the future challenges at colleges and universities. In addition, it is a great opportunity to have some rest. Consider the following programs: English Today. This program invites all eager students to Boston for 4- and 6-weeks of studying. The program involves students aged 17 years and older. It is targeted at the improvement of creative writing and will mainly focus on pronunciation, speaking, writing skills in general, the enrichment of vocabulary, and cross-cultural communication; Summer Institute for International Scholars. This is a specific course, which aims at the improvement and development of speaking and writing skills. The speaking aspect will involve work in teams, different types of verbal interactions, etc. When making allowances for the writing aspects, students will receive the ability to enhance the creative aspect. The instructors will work with the students individually, to improve various essential aspects. The program’s duration is six weeks; Summer Creative Arts Course in USA or Canada or UK. It was initiated for the students aged between 14-18 years. The program will include various aspects of writing and other necessities. The creative writing program will teach students how to compose different pieces of writing in the most effective and quickest ways. The course will be helpful for journalists. In addition, students may improve their knowledge in photography, world design, theatre, music, and visual arts; Critical Thinking Course in USA or Canada or UK. The initiators of the program invite students aged from 14 to 18 whose language knowledge is native or near-native. The campers will be taught how to avoid bad arguments and use proper ones when writing. They will also learn deductive and inductive methods, the use of the evidence, which will improve their creative writing. This was a brief survey of popular creative writing programs you can select for the summer period. Visit each website and evaluate the possibilities. It is quite possible that one of the described programs will meet your requirements and will help you improve creative writing skills. Yet, there are many other similar programs and institutions with professional staff and effective programs. Just do your own small research and compare them. Select the one that fits you most in order to reach your academic objectives.

Characteristics And Efficacy Of Adlerian Therapy Essay

Characteristics and Efficacy Adlerian therapy was founded by Alfred Adler, a physician turned psychotherapist. Adlerian therapy was originally called individual psychology (n.d. , Adler University). Adlerian therapy or individual psychology principles are based on the client being looked at â€Å"holistically, as a unified personality, or ‘individual’†, how a client’s â€Å"social environment† influenced â€Å"personality development†, how a client’s choices influence their lives rather than how their past effect their future, what types of â€Å"social interest† and â€Å"prosocial behavior† are influencing â€Å"psychological health†, â€Å"purposeful†, â€Å"goal oriented†, and â€Å"meaningful† behaviors, and understanding the client’s â€Å"subjective reality†. Adlerian therapy emphasizes the need for social interest or â€Å"community†. The social life consists of â€Å"communal life†, â⠂¬Å"work†, and â€Å"love relationships†. â€Å"Self-acceptance†, â€Å"spirituality†, and â€Å"parenting† were added later (Gehart, pg. 96, 2016). The interventions of Adlerian Therapy include â€Å"parenting style†, â€Å"family constellation and birth order†, â€Å"early recollections†, â€Å"basic mistakes†, â€Å"organ inferiority or physical weak points†, â€Å"dream analysis†, â€Å"the question†, â€Å"psychodynamic formulation†, â€Å"life tasks and social interest†, and â€Å"DSM Diagnosis† (Gehart, pg. 102-107, 2016). There are four phases of Adlerian therapy. The first phase is to â€Å"establish an egalitarian relationship†. The counselor may do this by â€Å"making a positive, warm connection† and emphasizingShow MoreRelatedAdlerian Psychotherapy: an Overview of Theory and Practice2639 Words   |  11 PagesAbstract Understand, interpret, direct. 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Cell Phones Effect on Society Free Essays

string(77) " over a volume of 1 g of tissue, for most parts of the body \(see website\)\." RBMOnline – Vol 18. No 1. 2009 148-157 Reproductive BioMedicine Online; www. We will write a custom essay sample on Cell Phones Effect on Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now rbmonline. com/Article/3628 on web 3 November 2008 Review Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? Ashok Agarwal is a Professor in the Lerner College of Medicine at Case Western Reserve University and the Director of Center for Reproductive Medicine, and the Clinical Andrology Laboratory at The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States. He has published over 400 scientific articles, reviews and book chapters in different areas of andrology, male/ female infertility and fertility preservation. His research program is known internationally for its focus on disease-oriented cutting edge research in the field of human reproduction. His team has presented over 700 papers at national and international meetings and more than 150 scientists, clinicians and biologists have received their training in his laboratory. Dr Ashok Agarwal Kartikeya Makker1, Alex Varghese1, Nisarg R Desai1, Rand Mouradi2, Ashok Agarwal1,3 1 Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; 2Department of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 3 Correspondence: Tel: +1 216 444 9485; Fax: +1 216 445 6049; e-mail: agarwaa@ccf. org Abstract Over the past decade, the use of mobile phones has increased significantly. However, with every technological development comes some element of health concern, and cell phones are no exception. Recently, various studies have highlighted the negative effects of cell phone exposure on human health, and concerns about possible hazards related to cell phone exposure have been growing. This is a comprehensive, up-to-the-minute overview of the effects of cell phone exposure on human health. The types of cell phones and cell phone technologies currently used in the world are discussed in an attempt to improve the understanding of the technical aspects, including the effect of cell phone exposure on the cardiovascular system, sleep and cognitive function, as well as localized and general adverse effects, genotoxicity potential, neurohormonal secretion and tumour induction. The proposed echanisms by which cell phones adversely affect various aspects of human health, and male fertility in particular, are explained, and the emerging molecular techniques and approaches for elucidating the effects of mobile phone radiation on cellular physiology using high-throughput screening techniques, such as metabolomics and microarrays, are discussed. A novel study is described, which is looking at changes in semen parameters, oxidative stress markers and sperm DNA damage in semen samples exposed in vitro to cell phone radiation. Keywords: biophysics, cell phone, general health, infertility, radiofrequency electromagnetic waves, RF-EMW Introduction Cell phone usage has increased by leaps and bounds in the past decade and a half. From being a luxury limited to the wealthy, cell phones have become a commodity, virtually indispensable in daily lives. However, every technological advance and its overuse have a negative aspect. The increase in popularity of cell phones is accompanied by a growing concern regarding the harmful effects of cell phone radiation (radiofrequency electromagnetic waves; RF-EMW) exposure on human health. An earlier report of the Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones, established by the UK government, summarized the relevant studies on the biological effects of RF-EMW (Huber et al. , 2000). Since then, a flurry of scientific activities has attempted to define and quantify the adverse effects of RF-EMW. Despite the increasing number of reports concerning the effects of RF-EMW on various biological systems, no satisfactory mechanism has been proposed to explain the effects of this radiation (Feychting, 2005). Although cell phone companies constantly reassure their subscribers about the safety of their product, reports based on animal and human experiments showing adverse effects of cell phones on biological systems have surfaced. According to various reports, excessive cell phone usage has led to fatigue, headache, decreased concentration and local irritation and burning (Sandstrom et al. , 2001). The possible role of cell phone exposure on tumour induction also has been proposed in an epidemiological study (Hardell et al. , 2006). Recent studies also have highlighted the role of cell phone exposure on sperm motility, morphology and viability, thus proposing a reduction in male fertilizing potential (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Other reports suggest that RF-EMW may lead to DNA damage and chromosomal instability (Diem et al. , 2005). Even though the current research may have been inconclusive, it still has been successful in providing preliminary data and identifying trends on both sides of the argument that cell phone exposure may lead to harmful effects on human health. These 148  © 2009 Published by Reproductive Healthcare Ltd, Duck End Farm, Dry Drayton, Cambridge CB23 8DB, UK Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. studies have been handicapped by many drawbacks in design and methodology. In particular, comparing animal models with humans (Cairnie and Harding, 1981) is impractical. Differences in geometry, size and physiological responses between man and experimental animals imply that the results in animal studies should be interpreted with caution. Experimental approaches involving animal studies and in-vitro studies, along with high-throughput screening techniques like transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, can augment the validity of epidemiological studies addressing the effect of RF-EMW on reproductive tissues, cells and functions. Recent studies using these approaches have yielded interesting clues on the effect of RF-EMW at the cellular and molecular levels. This article highlights the adverse affects of RF-EMW on human biological systems by reviewing relevant studies and recent research to aid in deeper understanding of this important health issue. The novel study currently being carried out in the centre is briefly discussed. 1900 MHz), and they have the capacity to switch automatically among these four frequencies. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the energy flow per unit of mass (watts/kg; W/kg). It is a measurement of the power or heat absorbed by the tissue either in a local area of a human tissue or averaged over the whole body. In the USA, the SAR of cell phones varies from 0. 12–1. 6 W/kg. Standards are designed to limit the SAR in the body to safety levels. The Federal Communications Commission has set a SAR safety limit of 1. W/kg, averaged over a volume of 1 g of tissue, for most parts of the body (see website). You read "Cell Phones Effect on Society" in category "Papers" Exposure guidelines for RF protection had adopted the value of 4 W/kg averaged over the whole body (SARWB) ‘as the threshold for the induction of adverse thermal effects associated with an increase of the body core temperature of abou t 1 °C in animal experiments’ (Barnes and Greenebaum, 2007). Cell phone radiation output power is measured in units of watts or dBm (decibel referenced to 1 mW). Usually cell phones with higher frequency are assigned less output power. Cell phones commonly used these days operate at an output power of less than 1 W. Power density is a term for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field. It is defined as the power per unit area and is measured in units of mW/m2 or  µW/cm2 (Food and Drug Administration website). Maximum permissible exposures are based on SAR and power density measurements. The Federal Communications Commission has established safety standards on power density for cell phone base station antenna using 1900 MHz band for the general population an uncontrolled exposure of 1000  µW/cm2, and for the 850 MHz band the maximum exposure allowed is about 580  µW/cm2, as averaged over any 30-min period. Recent studies demonstrated that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effects (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). An overview of cell phone technology Telecommunications technology has advanced rapidly and explosively in recent years. The earliest, fully automatic cellular phone systems that were used were called Nordic mobile telephone, now classified as first-generation cellular phones. Introduced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, they were based on analogue technology. The second-generation cell phones that replaced the older analogue type are based on digital technology. These digital models have increased voice capacity, provided faster data transfer speeds, longer battery life, less power use and better signal quality than the firstgeneration cell phones. The cell phone technologies that are commonly used nowadays are the global system for mobile communication (GSM) and code division multiple access (CDMA). Both of these technologies are used by cell phone companies in the USA. The GSM technology uses narrow-band time division multiple access (TDMA), whereas CDMA incorporates the wider band that allows more users without interference and better security by providing every user with a unique code. The third-generation cell phones, which may be available for general use in the near future, consist of universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)/wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) and the high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) phones. The UMTS utilizes a GSM infrastructure with a W-CDMA air interface (the specification of the radio transmission between a mobile phone and the base station), which adds advantages to UMTS over GSM technology. The HSDPA is based on the W-CDMA technology with improved downlink speed that allows even higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Cell phones in the USA operate on the frequency bands of 850 MHz and 1900 MHz. In most other parts of the world, the frequency bands used are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. The newer phones offer a quad-band feature, which means that they can operate on the four common frequencies (850/900/1800 and RBMOnline ® Effect of RF-EMW on general health This section provides a discussion of the various aspects of human health that have been proposed to be, or actually are, affected by cell phone radiation (RF-EMW) (Figure 1). Effect on cardiovascular system (CVS) Braune et al. (1998) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported an increase in blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) on exposure to RF-EMW at 900 MHz for 35 min. Blood pressure increased by 5–10 mmHg, accompanied by a significant decrease in capillary perfusion due to vasoconstriction. They demonstrated, however, that autoregulatory blood pressure mechanisms were intact, as shown by a decrease in heart rate to nullify the increase in blood pressure. In a follow-up study done by the same group to corroborate their previous findings, a statistically significant increase in blood pressure was shown, but the analysis of variance showed that the changes were independent of EMW exposure (Braune et al. , 2002). Later, Tahvanainen et al. (2004) demonstrated cell phone exposure does not acutely change arterial blood pressure and heart rate. 149 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 1. Effect of electromagnetic radiation from cell phone usage on various human systems. OS = oxidative stress. In an animal study, Ozguner et al. (2005) reported increase in oxidative stress in rat myocardium on exposure to 900 MHz RF-EMW (30 min/day, for 10 days). kit or using a landline phone to reduce cell phone exposure (Oftedal et al. , 2000). The generation of reactive oxygen species by RF-EMW exposure is still to be proven convincingly, although many groups have provided evidence in animal-based studies. An increase in kidney tissue malonaldehyde and urine N-acetyl-? d-glucosaminidase and decrease in renal superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were reported by Oktem et al. (2005). Similar results were shown by another investigator (Irmak et al. , 2002), who provided evidence in favour of EMW-induced oxidative stress. They showed an increase in superoxide dismutase activity and a decrease in nitric oxide concentrations in sera. Conversely, no change was seen in the concentration of intracellular oxidants [oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG) accumulation, oxidation of thiol] and antioxidants (CuZn-superoxide dismutase, catalase) in cells exposed to radiofrequency radiation (CDMA and GSM, 835– 847 MHz for 20–22 h) (Hook et al. , 2004). Effect on sleep Despite concerns that sleep patterns are disturbed due to excessive cell phone usage, Huber et al. (2000) did not report any significant change in sleep quality, sleep latency and rapid-eye-movement sleep latency in healthy young men exposed to 900 MHz for 30 min. The only effect reported was an increase in electroencephalogram power density during the first 30 min of non-rapid-eye-movement sleep, especially ? waves and sleep spindles (the type of sleep waves seen with an electroencephalogram). They concluded that the effect of RF-EMW exposure was transitory, limited to the initial phase of sleep and outlasting the RF-EMW exposure. Recently, Perentos et al. (2007) found no significant change in resting electroencephalogram on human volunteers exposed to RF-EMW. Cell phones and neurohormonal secretion Various epidemiological studies have highlighted effects of cell phone usage on neurohormonal secretion. Conflicting results have been reported by different groups regarding the effect of cell phones on melatonin secretion. De Seze et al. (1999) reported no change in maximum serum concentration (P = 0. 63), the time of peak concentration (P = 0. 49) and area under curve (P = 0. 56) of the hormonal profile. On the other hand, Burch et al. (2002) concluded that subjects with cell phone usage 25 min/day had lower creatinine-adjusted mean nocturnal concentrations of a melatonin metabolite, 6-hydroxymelatonin sulphate (6-OHMS), (P = 0. 5) and lower overnight 6-OHMS excretion (P = 0. 03). They concluded that prolonged usage of cell phones may lead to reduced melatonin production. Djeridane et al. (2008) demonstrated 900 MHz RFEMW would not significantly affect endocrine functions in men. RBMOnline ® Local and general adverse effects Sandstrom et al. (2001), in a questionnaire-based study involving some 17,000 respondents, showed that cell phone usage led to complaints such as warmth on and behind the ear (31%), fatigue (28%), headache (21. 4%), decreased concentration (15%), dizziness (10%), memory loss (9%), and tingling and numbness (6. 7%). They also concluded that a statistically significant positive trend was shown by warmth and neurasthenic symptoms (headache, fatigue) with calling time and number of calls per day. They proposed that these changes were due to either radiofrequency exposure or thermal effects of EMW. Of all the people who attributed these symptoms to cell phone usage, 45% of them took steps such as reducing calling time, changing cell phone model, using a hands-free 150 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Effects on cognitive function Preece et al. (1999) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported that the nly cognitive function test that altered post-RF-EMW exposure is choice reaction time, leading to an increase in responsiveness. They reported no change in word, number or picture recall or any change in spatial memory. They proposed that the increase in responsiveness was due to a mild local thermal effect of EMW on angular gyrus (the interface be tween visual and speech centres) or to mechanisms mediated by heat shock proteins. They also concluded that memory is not commonly affected by cell phone exposure as the memory area of the brain (hippocampus) is deep seated in the medial temporal lobe of the brain. Later, Regel et al. (2007) demonstrated RFEMW exposure reduces reaction speed and increased accuracy in working-memory tasks. As discussed previously, recent studies reported that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effect (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). However, several views were proposed to elucidate the disruption of metabolic pathways by RF-EMW. Some of these views are based on experimental evidences and some on hypothetical models. Isocitrate dehydrogenase, an important enzyme in the citric acid cycle, is one of the targets of cell phone radiation. Alteration in the enzyme activity leads to decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in mammalian cells (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Since sperm motility depends on the active generation of ATP, such a mechanism might cause the decline in sperm motility during RF exposure. Spermatozoa lose their cytoplasm post-spermiation, leading to the loss of their antioxidant protective mechanism and rendering them inherently vulnerable to induction of DNA damage. They are differentiated to the point that they cannot undergo apoptosis in response to any form of severe genetic damage (Aitken, 1999). In addition, during the process of maturation, spermatozoa are separated from the Sertoli cells, their nursing cells. Several investigators have demonstrated an increase in DNA fragmentation in a variety of human and animal cells following cell phone exposure (Lai and Singh, 1996; Diem et al. , 2005; Panagopoulos et al. , 2007). Lai and Singh showed that exposing rats (n = 16) for 2 h to pulsed 2- µs pulse width, 500 pulses/s and continuous wave (2450 MHz) leads to an increase in breaks of single-stranded DNA (P 0. 01) and double-stranded DNA (P 0. 01) in rat brain cells. They proposed that this could be due to either direct EMWmediated effects or a defect in DNA repair mechanisms. In contrast, several studies found no effect of EMW on genotoxicity. Stronati et al. (2006) demonstrated no effects of RF exposure on DNA strand breakage (assessed by COMET assay), unstable chromosomal alterations (assessed by metaphase analysis) or alterations in the speed of in-vitro cell cycling (assessed by nuclear division index) in lymphocytes in their experiment involving exposure of human blood samples to RF (24 h, 935 MHz). A large-scale in-vitro study conducted by Sakuma et al. 2006) concluded that RF-EMW from mobile phone radio base stations do not act as a genotoxicant (at SAR up to 800 mW/kg). The induction of DNA damage in spermatozoa has been associated with male infertility, early pregnancy loss and morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer (Aitken, 1999). Aitken et al. (2005) demonstrated that exposure of mice to RF-EMW, 900 MHz, 12 h/day for 7 days led to damage to both the mitochondrial and nuclear genome of epididymal spermatozoa (P 0. 01). However, currently no human studies are available demonstrating DNA damage in sperm cells by RF radiation exposure. Several animal studies have attempted to highlight histological changes in testicular tissue on exposure to RF-EMW. Dasdag et al. (1999) demonstrated a decrease in mean seminiferous tubule diameter in rats (n = 18) by exposing them to an 890–915 MHz cell phone, 2 h/day for 30 days (P 0. 05). However, a similar study carried out later by the same group did not reveal any statistically significant result of cell phone exposure on seminiferous tubular diameter, lipid composition, malonaldehyde Tumorigenesis Carcinogenic potential of cell phone radiation is one of the most conflicting aspect in various studies conducted by several groups. Following public concern that cell phone exposure may lead to cancer, Hardell et al. (2006) conducted an epidemiological questionnaire-based study and concluded that astrocytoma (grade III–IV) and acoustic neuroma did show a positive correlation with cell phone usage, and the odds ratio increased with latency (10 years). However, no increased risk was shown with astrocytoma (grade I–II), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, salivary tumours or testicular tumours. With regard to testicular tumours, they concluded that the risk of seminoma and non-seminoma was not increased, a dose–response effect was not observed, and he location of the cell phone was not associated with testicular cancers (Hardell et al. , 2007). Other scientists have concluded that the current evidence for a causal association between cancer and EMW exposure is weak and unconvincing (Colonna, 2005). Cell phone and effects on male fertility Pathophysiology Despite reports from numerous groups suggesting a possi ble role of cell phone exposure in male infertility, the exact mechanism of the effects of EMW on male reproductive system is yet to be elucidated. Though various effects have been proposed, foolproof experimental evidences are lacking to substantiate it. Human testes need physiological temperatures 2 °C lower than body temperature for optimal spermatogenesis. Highintensity RF has heating properties that lead to thermal effects on the testes. An increase in testicular or body temperature on exposure to EMW may cause reversible disruption of spermatogenesis (Kandeel and Swerdloff, 1988; Jung and Schill, 2000). EMW can also affect reproductive function via an EMW-specific effect (a ‘microwave’ effect produced by an increase in tissue temperature less than its normal temperature fluctuation) or in combination with the thermal molecular effect (Blackwell, 1979). 51 RBMOnline ® Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. concentration, sperm count or sperm morphology (Dasdag et al. , 2003). Ribeiro et al. (2007) also did not find any significant adverse effect of cellular phone exposure (GSM 1835–1850 MHz exposure, 1 h/day for 11 weeks) on rat testicular histology and function. However results of in-vitro studies are conflicting. An in-vitro study divided neat semen samples from healthy volunteers (n = 27) into two parts and one part was exposed to 900 MHz EMW for 5 min. Compared with the unexposed sample, the exposed sample was found to have a significant decrease in rapid progressive motility (Grade A, P = 0. 0007), an increase in slow progressive motility (Grade B, P = 0. 0007) and an increase in the percentage of immotile spermatozoa (Grade D, P = 0. 0003) (Erogul et al. , 2006). Recently, Falzone et al. (2008) studied the effect of pulsed 900 MHz radiation on various kinetic parameters and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)of purified human spermatozoa (by percoll density gradient). They found significant decrease in straight-line velocity and beatcross frequency at an SAR of 5. W/kg. However, at an SAR of 2. 0 W/kg they found no significant change in any kinetic parameters, including MMP. Significant changes in sperm morphology were not reported in the animal studies carried out by Dasdag et al. (1999, 2003). Similarly no significant (P 0. 05) alteration in morphology was reported by another group based on their animal experiment (Yan et a l. , 2007). However, the same group reported that 80% of the slides in the exposed group showed large clumps of sperm cells that were able only to turn about in their position and were not able to break free. On the other hand, significant data were brought out in a study in which 15. 3% of men using cell phones sporadically for 1–2 years had only 10–19% normal spermatozoa, and 15. 3% had total azoospermia, whereas men frequently using cell phones for 2 years had only 8. 3% normal spermatozoa, and 22. 9% showed total azoospermia (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). EMW and semen parameters The effects of cell phone exposure on male fertility have been studied exhaustively in recent years (Deepinder et al. , 2007). The effects on sperm concentration, motility and morphology have been evaluated in many animal and human studies, but results are inconclusive. Motility is the only parameter that the majority of studies have shown to be significantly affected. The need to further evaluate the effects of EMW on sperm morphology, viability and concentration still exists. Dasdag et al. (1999) reported a decrease in sperm count; however, the decline was not statistically significant (P 0. 05), and they were not able to repeat the same results later in a similar study (Dasdag et al. 2003). Another group reported that exposure of rats (n = 16) to a 1. 9 Hz cell phone from a distance of 1 cm for 6 h/ day for 18 weeks did not lead to significant decline in sperm concentration. The exposure group had a mean sperm count of 7. 45 ? 107  ± 1. 03 ? 107 sperm cells/ml, and the non-exposed group had a mean sperm count of 7. 7 ? 107  ± 8. 11 ? 106 sperm cells/ml (P 0. 05) (Yan et al. , 2007). In an epidemiolo gical study, researchers concluded that no statistically significant (P 0. 05, chi-squared test = 1. 8) difference in sperm count resulted from cell phone exposure (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). In a study carried out by this centre, a significant decline in sperm count was demonstrated in men who used cell phones for 4 h/ day (n = 114, count 50. 30  ± 41. 92 ? 106/ml) as compared with those who did not use cell phones at all (n = 40, count 85. 89  ± 35. 56 ? 106/ml) (P 0. 0001) (Agarwal et al. , 2008). As mentioned earlier, motility is the only parameter that consistently has been shown to decline in studies carried out by various groups. In a study involving 371 men presenting for an infertility workup, duration of possession and daily transmission time of cell phones correlated negatively with the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (r = –0. 12 and r = –0. 19, P 0. 01) and positively with the proportion of slow progressive motile spermatozoa (r = 0. 12 and r = 0. 28, P 0. 01) (Fejes et al. , 2005). The same group also concluded that low transmitter (60 min/ day) groups also differed in the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (48. 7% versus 40. 6%, P 0. 01). Wdowiak et al. (2007) reported that 65. 7% of men not using cell phones had 50% (WHO category A + B) sperm motility, whereas only 35. 4% of men who frequently used cell phones had 50% (A + B) sperm motility. Agarwal et al. (2008) had shown a significant reduction in motility of spermatozoa in men using cell phones 4 h/day versus men not using them at all (67. 80  ± 6. 16% versus 44. 81  ± 16. 30%, P 0. 0001). In an animal-based study, a significant decrease in sperm motility on exposure to cell phone (n = 16, P 0. 05) was reported (Yan et al. , 2007). The researchers also reported that the majority of sperm cells in the exposure group were dead (live cells 44. 88  ± 20. 66%); in the control group, the majority of sperm cells were alive with constant, active motility (live cells 70. 93  ± 12. 94%). Transcriptomics and proteomics in elucidation of biological response of cell phone radiation Research over the last two decades on the effect of RFEMW has yielded controversial results. It is said that even an extensive epidemiological study might not be sufficient to elucidate the health effects of electromagnetic radiations because of the low sensitivity of this approach. Hence, to validate the results from epidemiological studies, further data from animal and in-vitro studies needs to be analysed. Several lines of evidences suggest that the novel methodologies such as transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics could help in the search for clues to the negative impact of cell phone radiation on human health. High-throughput screening techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be used to pick up minute variations, like those caused by RF-EMW affecting protein or gene expression, that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration (Figure 2). Heat shock proteins (Hsp), which are molecular chaperones, comprise a group of highly conserved, abundantly expressed proteins with diverse functions, including the assembly and sequestering of multiprotein complexes, transportation of nascent polypeptide chains across cellular membranes, and regulation of protein folding. Protein phosphorylation is a first line of cellular response to any stimuli by either RBMOnline ® 152 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 2. A proposed model to study the effect of cell phone radiation using the high-throughput technologies. These techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be helpful to find minute variations caused by RF-EMF in protein or gene expression changes that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration. MALDI-TOF = matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight; SAGE = serial analysis of gene expression. internal or external factors. By using western blots or mass spectrometry, the phosphoproteins could be located after cellular irradiation from a mobile phone to check for any alterations in cell response. By using this approach, Hsp27 was determined to be a molecular target event of RF-EMW (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). A study using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry found statistically significant altered expression levels of 38 various proteins in human endothelial cell lines following GSM 900 MHz irradiation (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Two of the affected proteins were determined to be isoforms of cytoskeletal vimentin and might have an effect on the physiological functions that are regulated by the cytoskeleton. Results from a study using human lens epithelial cells (HLEC) cell lines indicate that exposure to non-thermal dosages of RF for wireless communications can induce no or repairable DNA damage and the augmented Hsp70 protein expression in HLEC occurred without change in the cell proliferation rate (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). The induction of Hsp70 by extremely low frequency (ELF) EMW also involves elements of the mitogen-activated phosphokinase (MAPK) family of cell response cascades, which are recognized signal transduction systems present in eukaryotes. MAPK pathways consist of distinct cascades of regulator enzymes that serially activate one another to control the expression of specific sets of genes in response to growth factors, cytokines, tumour promoters and other major biological stimuli. The authors suggest that nonthermal stress response of Hsp70 protein increased on RF exposure might be involved in protecting HLEC from DNA damage and maintaining the cellular capacity for proliferation (Lixia et al. , 2006). RBMOnline ® The phosphorylated Hsp27 (activated) has been shown to inhibit apoptosis by forming a complex with the apoptosome (complex of Apaf 1 protein, procaspase 9, and cytochrome c) or some of its components and preventing proteolytic activation of the procaspase 9 into active form of caspase 9 (Concannon et al. , 2001). This, in turn, prevents activation of procaspase-3, which is activated by caspase 9. Apaf-1 plays an important role in the induction of apoptosis (Zou et al. , 1997). Cytochrome c release from mitochondria occurs when there is a DNAdamaging stimuli-induced apoptosis. Together with dATP/ATP, cytochrome c initiates formation of an apoptosome consisting of Apaf 1 oligomers. The Apaf 1 apoptosome recruits and activates caspase 9, which in turn activates the executioner caspases, caspase 3 and caspase 7 (Zou et al. , 1997). The induction of the increased Hsp27 activation by the RF-EMW exposure might lead to inhibition of the apoptotic pathway that involves apoptosome and caspase 3. It is proposed that such events occurring in RF-EMW-exposed cells that had undergone either spontaneous or external factor-induced transformation or damage could support survival of the transformed/damaged cells (Leszczynski et al. 2004). The exposure of the EA. hy926 human endothelial cell line to 900 MHz RF-EMW induces activation of the p38 MAPK stress response pathway and leads to an increase in expression and phosphorylation of the small stress response protein Hsp27 (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). Other studies have shown that the phosphorylated form of Hsp 27 has the abi lity to translocate to the nucleus and to induce changes in gene expression (Geum et al. , 2002). The evidence suggests that different types of cells from different species might respond differently to mobile phone radiation 53 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. or might have different sensitivity to this weak stimulus. The results from the studies by (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006) show that gene and protein expression were altered in multiple cell lines in response to 1-h mobile phone radiation exposure at an average specific absorption rate of 2. 8 W/kg. However, the same genes and proteins were affected differently by the exposure in each of the cell lines. This suggests that the cell response to mobile phone radiation might be genome- and proteome-dependent. The magnitude of the genetic background for some stimulus-specific responses was highlighted by some studies comparing different cell lines (Czyz et al. , 2004). It is postulated that the genetic constitution, as well as carrier frequency of the modulation schemes and exposure duration, may play a substantial role in responsiveness of cells to RFEMW. These findings might also explain, at least in part, the origin of discrepancies in reproducibility of studies among different laboratories (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006). Some evidence has suggested that RF-EMW may change expression of DNA transcription factors and cause changes in cell cycle kinetics. Litovitz et al. (1993) have shown that exposure of mouse L929 fibroblasts to 915 MHz at an SAR of 2. 5 W/kg induced the expression of ornithine decarboxylase protein, an enzyme important in cell cycle regulation. Natarajan et al. (2002) reported that exposure of a monocytic cell line to 8. 2 GHz pulse-modulated RF-EMW increased the binding of the nuclear factor kappa light chain gene to its consensus DNA sequence. Later on, relative expression and localization of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) and their receptors (BMPR), major endocrine and autocrine morphogens involved in renal development, were investigated by Pyrpasopoulou et al. (2004) in newborn kidneys from RF-EMW-exposed pregnant rats. The kidneys of newborns from the RF-exposed rats showed up-regulation of BMP4 and BMPR1A and down-regulation of BMPR2. This study suggests that RF-EMW might interfere with gene expression during early gestation and result in aberrations of BMP expression in the newborn (Pyrpasopoulou et al. 2004). RF-EMW has also been reported to affect the expression of Jun, a proto-oncogene (Ivaschuk et al. , 1997). Using serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), Lee et al. (2005) reported that in-vitro exposure of HL-60 cells to pulsemodulated 2. 45 GHz RF fields at an SAR of 10 W/kg for 6 h resulted in the differential expression of more than 750 genes. In contrast, many other recent studies have failed to find ev idence of RF-field-induced changes in Hsp expression after RF-EMW exposure at frequencies ranging from 900–1950 MHz and SAR from 2–10 W/kg (Capri et al. 2004a,b; Laszlo et al. , 2005). Qutob et al. (2006) also reported no evidence relating nonthermal RF field on gene expression using microarray analysis in cultured U87 MG cells. Studies done on Drosophila melanogaster developmental potential by exposure to non-thermal radiation from the GSM mobile phone found increased numbers of offspring and elevated Hsp70 levels (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). This study also reported increased serum response element DNA-binding and induction of the phosphorylation of the nuclear transcription factor ELK-1 by cell phone radiation. The rapid induction of Hsp70 within minutes by a non-thermal stress, together with identified components of signal transduction pathways, could provide sensitive and reliable biomarkers that could serve as the basis for practical mobile phone safety guidelines (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). The indications to date that certain genes are influenced by EMW suggests that genome-wide scans of the transcriptome are necessary. Among the several technologies used for genomewide gene expression analysis, SAGE is one promising method that seems particularly applicable for EMW research. SAGE has been used in many biological and medical studies involving various eukaryotic species. So far, more than 19 million copies of SAGE tags have been collected from humans (Wang, 2006). In a recent study by Remondini et al. (2006), which was part of the Fifth Framework Programme project REFLEX (Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards From LowEnergy Electromagnetic Field Exposure Using Sensitive InVitro Methods), six human cell types, immortalized cell lines and primary cells were exposed to 900 and 1800 MHz. RNA was isolated from exposed and sham-exposed cells and labelled for transcriptome analysis on whole-genome cDNA arrays. NB69 neuroblastoma cells, T lymphocytes, and CHME5 microglial cells did not show significant changes in gene expression. In EA. hy926 endothelial cells, U937 lymphoblastoma cells and HL-60 leukaemia cells, between 12 and 34 genes were up- or down-regulated (including bcl-2-associated transcription factor BTF gene). The findings conclude that analysis of the affected gene families does not point towards a stress response, and no consistent RF-EMF signatures could be detected. However, following RF-EMW exposure, some but not all human cells might react with an increase in expression of genes encoding ribosomal proteins and therefore up-regulating the cellular metabolism (Remondini et al. , 2006). Theoretical approaches also have been proposed to elucidate the mechanism behind the stimulation of biosynthesis by EMW (Blank and Goodman, 2008). Electrons have been shown to move in DNA and biochemical reactions could be modulated by EMW (Blank, 2005). Interaction with electrons could explain the activation of DNA by weak, low-frequency EMW, as well as the more energetic high frequencies. Evidence from biochemical reactions suggests that electromagnetic fields can accelerate electron transfer. Interaction with electrons could displace electrons in H bonds that hold DNA together, leading to chain separation and initiating transcription. The electron transfer would favour separation of base pairs, and DNA geometry is optimized for disaggregation under such conditions. The initial interaction could involve the displacement of electrons in the H bonds that hold DNA together, thereby causing chain separation and initiating transcription and translation. EMWinitiated DNA separation can set in motion the interconnected biochemical signalling pathways that are activated in the stress response (Blank and Goodman, 2008). The effects of lowfrequency EMW on Na/K-ATPase activity (Blank, 2005) to generate ATP is another pertinent field to explore in the context of spermatozoal motility. The Na/K-ATPase is an enzyme of the plasma membrane of most animal cells that uses the free energy from the hydrolysis of ATP to mediate the exchange of cytoplasmic Na+ for extracellular K+ in a 3:2 ratio (Kaplan, 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006). The Na/K-ATPase plays a key role in numerous cell processes that depend directly or indirectly on the transmembrane gradients of Na+ and K+. The enzyme is essential in maintaining cell osmotic balance, volume, pH and the cell resting membrane potential and in providing the chemical energy for the secondary Na+-coupled transport of other ions, solutes and water across the cell membrane (Skou and Esmann, 1992). This enzyme has an important role, along RBMOnline ® 154 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. with Na+/H+ exchanger, in human sperm motility (Woo et al. 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006) These cellular pathways should be further analysed in the context of EMW. More recently Friedman et al. (2007) found significant increase in plasma membrane NADH oxidase activity of mammalian cells (HeLa cells) after exposure to 875 MHz EMF. Although the use of the discovery science approach employing high-throughput screening techniques will not yield foolproof evidence of a health hazard or its absence, it will be essential in unravelling the complexities of the biological effects potentially exerted by RF-EMF exposure. upport of previous studies, they also will open opportunities for groundbreaking research in this area. References Agarwal A, Deepinder F, Sharma RK et al. 2008 Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertility and Sterility 89, 124–128. Agarwal A, Desai NR, Makker K et al. 2008 Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility Epub ahead of print. Aitken RJ 1999 The Amoroso Lecture. The human spermatozoon – a cell in crisis? Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 115, 1–7. Aitken RJ, L. E. Bennetts, Sawyer D et al. 2005 Impact of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation on DNA integrity in the male germline. International Journal of Andrology 28, 171–179. Anderson V, Rowley J 2007 Measurements of skin surface temperature during mobile phone use. Bioelectromagnetics 28, 159–162. Barnes FS, Greenebaum B 2007 Bioengineering and biophysical aspects of electromagnetic fields. In: Barnes FS, Greenebaum B (eds) Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA. Blackwell RP 1979 Standards for microwave radiation. Nature 282, 360. Blank M 2005 Do electromagnetic fields interact with electrons in the Na,K-ATPase? Bioelectromagnetics 26, 677–683. Blank M, Goodman R 2008 A mechanism for stimulation of biosynthesis by electromagnetic fields: charge transfer in DNA and base pair separation. Journal of Cellular Physiology 214, 20–26. Braune S, Riedel A, Schulte-Monting J et al. 2002 Influence of a radiofrequency electromagnetic field on cardiovascular and hormonal parameters of the autonomic nervous system in healthy individuals. Radiation Research 158, 352–356. Braune S, Wrocklage C, Raczek J et al. 1998 Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field. Lancet 351, 1857–1858. Burch JB, Reif S, Noonan CW et al. 2002 Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users. International Journal of Radiation Biology 78, 1029–1036. Cairnie AB, Harding RK 1981 Cytological studies in mouse testis irradiated with 2. 45-GHz continuous-wave microwaves. Radiation Research 87, 100–108. Capri M, Scarcella E, Bianchi E et al. 004a 1800 MHz radiofrequency (mobile phones, different global system for mobile communication modulations) does not affect apoptosis and heat shock protein 70 level in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from young and old donors. International Journal Radiation Biology 80, 389–397. Capri M, Scarcella E, Fumelli C et al. 2004b In-vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to 900 MHz CW and GSM modulated radiofrequency: studie s of proliferation, apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Radiation Research 162, 211–218. Colonna A 2005 Cellular phones and cancer: current status. Bull Cancer 92, 637–643. Concannon CG, Orrenius S, Samali A 2001 Hsp27 inhibits cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation by sequestering both pro-caspase-3 and cytochrome c. Gene Expression 9, 195–201. Czyz J, Guan K, Zeng Q et al. 2004 High frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM signals) affect gene expression levels in tumor suppressor p53-deficient embryonic stem cells. Bioelectromagnetics 25, 296–307. Dasdag S, Zulkuf Akdag M, Aksen F et al. 2003 Whole body exposure of rats to microwaves emitted from a cell phone does not affect the testes. Bioelectromagnetics 24, 182–188. Dasdag S, Ketani MA, Akdag Z et al. 999 Whole-body microwave exposure emitted by cellular phones and testicular function of rats. Urological Research 27, 219–223. Cleveland Clinic pilot study To validate the results of recent epidemiological studies and to establish a cause and effect relationship between cell phone usage and decrease in semen parameters, a novel in-vitro experiment was designed. Semen sample s were exposed to EMW from a commercially available cellular phone (GSM network, 850 MHz,), and the effect of EMW on semen parameters, DNA integrity [using TdT (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase)mediated dUDP nick-end labelling assay] (Tesarik et al. 2006; Ozmen et al. , 2007) and disturbance in reactive oxygen species metabolism was assessed post exposure. In this study, healthy donors were enrolled to provide semen samples. The semen sample obtained from each volunteer was divided into two parts: EMW-exposed group and control group. Environmental condition was monitored throughout the experiment. The frequency emitted by the cell phone was also confirmed with help of a radiofrequency spectrum analyser. One portion of the sample was exposed to radiation from a commercially available cell phone. A second portion was kept non-exposed for the same time duration. Measurement of sperm concentration, motility and viability was carried out as described by the World Health Organization (1999). Samples also were assessed for reactive oxygen species, total antioxidant capacity and DNA damage (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Conclusion As highlighted above, many aspects of human health have been proposed to be affected by cell phone exposure. Ranging from mild local warmth to possible tumour induction, EMW have been suspected of involvement in many health concerns. At this time, evidence is lacking to strongly prove or disprove any of the proposed harmful effects of EMW. However, the significance of these studies and their possible implications in the future cannot be ignored. Findings and trends available from these studies provide a strong indication to carry out further studies to establish a clearer and more evidence-based conclusion. Both human and animal-based studies have provided a hint that EMW may be involved in the pathogenesis of male infertility, but considerable work is required to provide scientific support for this view. More importantly, studies must be carried out in human semen samples as data from animal studies are limited in their applicability in humans. High-throughput screening techniques may be an important tool to evaluate the molecular effects of EMW on the biological system. 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